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FOR ARCHITECTS Although architecture is more and more coming to be recognized as one of the fine arts, it is at the same time so largely practical and utilitarian that its theory and methods may to a great extent be gathered from systematic reading. In the article Fine Arts in the Britannica, by Sir Sidney Colvin, it is well said that “The original or rudimentary type of the architect, considered not as a mere builder but as an artist, is the savage, who, when his tribe had taken to live in tents or huts instead of caves, first arranged the skins and timbers of his tent or hut in one way because it pleased his eye, rather than in some other way which was as good for shelter.” Whether the architect wishes to learn how the eye may be pleased, to study critically the history of architecture, or, like the less imaginative savage who failed of being the first inspired architect, to consider comfort and shelter rather than beauty and charm, he will find much to help him in the Britannica. If his interest is chiefly practical, he should consult the chapter _For Builders_ in this Guide. The architect should read first—and he will constantly be referring to it afterwards—the article ARCHITECTURE (Vol. 2, p. 369), equivalent in length to 235 pages of this Guide and illustrated by 140 figures, about one-third of which are photogravures. The article is historical in the main and a brief outline of it is as follows:— Egyptian Assyrian Persian Greek Parthian Sassanian Etruscan Roman Byzantine Early Christian Coptic Church in Egypt Romanesque and Gothic in Italy France Spain England Germany Belgium and Holland Renaissance: Introduction Italy France Spain England Germany Belgium and Holland Mahommedan Modern Classical Revival in British Architecture Classical Revival in Germany French Classicism Barry’s “Commonsense” Style Gothic Revival in England Gothic Revival in France Queen Anne Style “Free Classic” Style Arts allied to Architecture Craftsmanship Ideal Architecture in United States (Figures 97, 98, 99, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138) English Churches English Public Buildings English Domestic and Street Architecture Recent French Architecture Germany Other Countries The part of the article dealing with Modern Architecture is by H. H. Statham author of a well-known book on the subject. Earlier sections are by R. Phené Spiers, late master of the Royal Academy’s Architectural School, with sections on the Romanesque and Gothic in France by W. R. Lethaby, principal of the Central (London County) School of Arts and Crafts. Before continuing his more systematic historical readings the student may well read the article HOUSE (Vol. 13, p. 810), illustrated with 12 figures (3 plates), including four particularly fine examples of “half timbered buildings,” and one English house, the Jew’s House at Lincoln, dating from the 12th century. An interesting article on MURAL DECORATION (Vol. 19, p. 16) is by a remarkably distinguished trio: William Morris, poet, craftsman and painter, John Henry Middleton, late Slade professor of fine art, Cambridge, and Walter Crane, the well-known illustrator and decorator. This is illustrated with 16 figures in black and white and with a reproduction in colours of a wall-painting from a Roman villa of the early Empire. The article deals with: reliefs in marble and stone; marble veneer; glazed bricks or tiles; hard stucco; sgraffito; stamped leather; painted cloth; printed hangings and wall-papers; and painting. If the student of architecture would know about the buildings of prehistoric times, in which there was little architecture in the sense of a fine art, he should read the articles ARCHAEOLOGY, (Vol. 2, p. 344), LAKE DWELLINGS (Vol. 16, p. 91), STONEHENGE (Vol. 25, p. 961) and STONE MONUMENTS, PRIMITIVE (Vol. 25, p. 962),—the last two of particular interest to the building engineer because it is so puzzling a problem how these great blocks could have been brought such distances and set in place without modern appliances. [Sidenote: Early Oriental Architecture] Engineering problems will be the most interesting in a large part of the student’s reading about Egyptian architecture. Supplementing the 4,000 or 5,000 words on this subject under ARCHITECTURE, accompanied by seven illustrations, there is much information in the articles EGYPT (Vol. 9, p. 21); ABYDOS (Vol. 1, p. 81) and KARNAK (Vol. 15, p. 680); and in the articles PYRAMID (Vol. 22, p. 683), (by W. M. Flinders Petrie) and SPHINX (Vol. 25, p. 662) by Francis Llewellyn Griffith, another well-known Egyptologist. In the former article the author points out that the outside and inside work on all the pyramids was excellent and that the casings were not a mere veneer but were “of massive blocks, usually greater in thickness than in height, and in some cases (as at South Dahshur) reminding the observer of horizontal leaves with sloping edges.” The massive character of the roofing of the sepulchral chambers is indicated by Prof. Petrie’s estimate that “in Pepi’s pyramid it is of three layers of stone beams, each deeper than their breadth, resting one on another, the thirty stones weighing more than 30 tons each.” But neither Stonehenge nor the pyramid was really an engineering problem. Here, and as in all his studies of early architecture, artist or engineer will find religion and worship the aim and the reason of the building even more, if that is possible, than in the great European cathedrals of comparatively recent times. In the article BABYLONIA and ASSYRIA there is a brief section (Vol. 3, p. 108) on _Art_, supplementing the treatment under ARCHITECTURE. It is interesting to note that even in Assyria architecture was trammelled, reactionary, governed by Babylonian styles and using brick and clay because Babylon did, although there was stone in Assyria, and none in Babylonia; and keeping the heavy brick platform foundation which the Babylonian architects had adopted because of the marshy character of their country, although there was no need of such construction in Assyria. Here too the function of architecture was largely as an aid to religion: as shown in the article NIPPUR (Vol. 19, p. 707), with its description of the “ziggurat” or artificial mountain in the shrine, built probably 40 or 45 centuries B. C. One temple was 272 ft. square, with seven storeys, each smaller than the one below and thus surrounded by a terrace, each dedicated to a planet, each coloured a separate tint, the first probably 45 ft. high, and the total height 160 ft. In Assyria great palaces of the 9th, 8th and 7th centuries B. C. have been found, and these are probably the earliest large buildings of any architectural importance not religious in their purpose; but this distinction must not be carried too far, for the king was sacrosanct, half priest and half god, and his palace was a shrine. [Sidenote: Greece and Rome] Although the main treatment of Greek and Roman architecture is in the article ARCHITECTURE, the student should read the articles GREEK ART (Vol. 12, p. 470; equivalent to 70 pages in this Guide; written by Percy Gardner, author of _Grammar of Greek Art_) and ROMAN ART (Vol. 23, p. 474; equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide; written by H. Stuart Jones, director of the British School at Rome). The article on GREEK ART contains 82 illustrations, many of them halftones. It makes clear the dependence of the other fine arts in Greece on architecture—and on religion—in showing that the greatest sculptures were adjuncts to temples, and (p. 471–472) in a discussion of the architecture of Greek temples calls attention to four basal principles of Greek architecture: (1) Each member of the building has one function and only one, and this function controls even the decoration of that member. Pillars support architraves; their perpendicular flutings emphasize this. Moulding at a column’s base suggests the support of a great weight. (2) Simple and natural relations prevailed between various members of a construction. (3) Rigidity of simple lines is avoided; scarcely any outline is actually straight. Columns are not equidistant. (4) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the temple which have, or seem to have, no strain laid upon them. The article TEMPLE (Vol. 26, p. 603) gives plans and general information about Greek and Roman sacred architecture, as well as Hebrew, Egyptian and Assyrian temples; and the reader should study the article PARTHENON (Vol. 20, p. 869) and the diagram in that article, and the article PERGAMUM (Vol. 21, p. 142) and the two plates which accompany it. The article ROMAN ART (Vol. 23, p. 474) is probably the first brief and authoritative treatment of a topic long overshadowed in popular interest by the earlier art of Greece and the later art of Italy. It begins with a history of recent research. Architecture, pre-eminently the most Roman of the arts as combining utility with beauty, is outlined (pp. 476–477 especially) and the main point in regard to Roman architecture is brought out as follows: “the specific achievement of the Roman architect was the artistic application of a new set of principles—those which are expressed in the arch, the vault and the dome,” as contrasted with the rectilinear buildings of the Greeks. The arch, particularly the triumphal arch, is specifically a Roman product and is specifically Roman besides in being an expression of reverence for governmental authority,—which, it should, however, be remembered, cannot be separated from religion. Among the most important of Roman sculptures and particularly reliefs are those of the arches, described in the articles ARCH (Vol. 2, p. 342) and TRIUMPHAL ARCH (Vol. 27, p. 297), the latter with eight figures. The part of the article AQUEDUCT which deals with Roman aqueducts (Vol. 2, pp. 241–243, with 2 plates, 6 illustrations) will interest the architect as well as the contractor or engineer. And he should read the article on the Roman architect and writer on architecture, VITRUVIUS (Vol. 28, p. 150), whose book so strongly affected the Renaissance. Before taking up modern architecture as distinguished from ancient, the student will do well to examine the architecture of some more remote peoples—for instance, _Aztec_ (Vol. 5, p. 441 and p. 677) _Abyssinian_ (Vol. 12, p. 232) _Hittite_ (Vol. 13, p. 537) _Indian_ (Vol. 14, p. 428, with 4 plates) _Japanese_ (Vol. 15, pp. 181–182) _Chinese_ (Vol. 6, p. 214) _Byzantine_ (Vol. 4, p. 906, with 2 plates), and the article CONSTANTINOPLE (Vol. 7, p. 3) [Sidenote: Modern Architecture] The last topic will serve as a transition to the modern architecture of Europe, especially because the influence of the Byzantine was so strong in the early church. The study of the Italian Romanesque and Gothic in an elaborate section of ARCHITECTURE (Vol. 2, p. 391) may well be supplemented by reading the articles on the Italian cities in which this art is preserved. The following list is roughly chronological, the cities named first being those in which there are the oldest churches. RAVENNA, PISA and VENICE, for Byzantine Romanesque. ───────────────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────────── MILAN │for Lombard Romanesque PAVIA │ „ BRESCIA │ „ BERGAMO │ „ PIACENZA │ „ PARMA │ „ MODENA │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── BARI │for Southern Romanesque MOLFETTA │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── PALERMO │for Sicilian Romanesque MESSINA │ „ MONREALE │ „ CEFALU │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────────────── WÜRZBURG, for Romanesque in Germany ───────────────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────────── GENOA │for Italian Gothic ASSISI │ „ ORVIETO │ „ VERONA │ „ PERUGIA │ „ SIENA │ „ In the same way, for Gothic in other countries, the student should read: AIX-LA-CHAPELLE │for French Gothic LE PUY │ „ ANGOULÊME │ „ ARLES │ „ NIMES │ „ ST. DENIS │ „ NOYON │ „ SENLIS │ „ SENS │ „ REIMS │ „ LE MANS │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── OVIEDO │for Spanish Gothic LEON │ „ AVILA │ „ SEGOVIA │ „ LERIDA │ „ TOLEDO │ „ BURGOS │ „ SEVILLE │ „ SALAMANCA │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── DURHAM │for English Gothic LINCOLN │ „ SALISBURY │ „ GLOUCESTER, etc. │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── AIX │for German Gothic MAINZ │ „ WORMS │ „ SPIRES │ „ COLOGNE │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────────────── TOURNAI, LOUVAIN, etc., for Belgian, and in general, the articles CATHEDRAL, NAVE, AISLE, CHOIR, APSE, CHEVET, LADY-CHAPEL, VAULT, FLYING BUTTRESS, PINNACLE, CLERESTORY and TRIFORIUM. The article Cathedral has plans of Canterbury, Salisbury, Durham, Ely, Chartres, Sens and Angoulême and a perspective of Amiens cathedral. In the same way the student of the Renaissance architecture may supplement the section in the article ARCHITECTURE (p. 408, etc.) by reference to the articles on the cities in which the great Renaissance buildings stand. But now “the career of the individual has to be taken into consideration,” so true is it that the Renaissance in architecture as in scholarship was intensely individualistic. The article ARCHITECTURE points this out and in this section is largely biographical in its treatment. The reader should study the following separate articles also _For Italian Renaissance_ FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FLORENCE LEONE BATTISTA ALBERTI MICHELOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO BRAMANTE ROME (for St. Peters: see Fig. 51 in ARCHITECTURE) BORGOGNONE BACCIO D’AGNOLO SANGALLO POLLAIULO MICHELANGELO JACOPO SANSOVINO MICHELE SANMICHELE ANDREA PALLADIO BAROCCHIO DA VIGNOLA GALEAZZO ALESSI LOMBARDO DOMENICO FONTANA BALDASSARE PERUZZI _The French Renaissance_ For this period, less individual than in Italy, the reader will find it best to study the geographical articles. Let him read BLOIS (noting Plate VIII, fig. 84, in the article ARCHITECTURE) TOURS CHAMBORD ORLEANS CHENONCEAUX FONTAINEBLEAU PARIS _Spanish Renaissance_ GRANADA VALLADOLID SARAGOSSA MALAGA SALAMANCA (Plate V., fig. 73 in _Architecture_) SEVILLE (Plate V., fig. 74 in _Architecture_) ESCORIAL (with plan) MADRID (Palacio Royal) _English Renaissance_ JOHN THORPE INIGO JONES SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL (see Fig. 53 in ARCHITECTURE) GREENWICH (for Hospital) NICHOLAS HAWKSMOOR SIR JOHN VANBRUGH DEAN HENRY ALDRICH GEORGE AND JAMES DANCE WILLIAM KENT ROBERT ADAM SIR WILLIAM CHAMBERS _German Renaissance_ ROTHENBURG (town-hall) AUGSBURG (town-hall) HEIDELBERG (see Plate VII in ARCHITECTURE) _Renaissance in Belgium and Holland_ ANTWERP AMSTERDAM ROTTERDAM HAARLEM On _Mahommedan Architecture_ the student should read not only the section (Vol. 2, pp. 422–427) in the article ARCHITECTURE, with eight illustrations, but the separate articles INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (with 4 plates, 17 figures) MOSQUE (with 3 diagrams) MINARET CAIRO CONSTANTINOPLE DAMASCUS JERUSALEM MECCA KAIRAWAN CORDOVA ALHAMBRA TABRIZ ISFAHAN On the more recent period, the 19th century, roughly, the student should supplement the last part of the article ARCHITECTURE by reading the following articles _For the Classical Revival in the British Isles_ DUBLIN (see also Fig. 85 in ARCHITECTURE) EDINBURGH SIR JOHN SOANE _English Gothic Revival_ A. W. N. PUGIN SIR GEORGE GILBERT SCOTT GEORGE S. STREET WILLIAM BUTTERFIELD JOHN LOUGHBOROUGH PEARSON ALFRED WATERHOUSE _France_ (Figs. 122–129 in article ARCHITECTURE) L. P. BALTARD J. L. C. GARNIER _The Last 50 Years_ GEORGE FREDERICK BODLEY │England R. NORMAN SHAW │ „ WILLIAM MORRIS │ „ HARVEY L. ELMES │ „ CHARLES R. COCKERELL │ „ LIVERPOOL (and Fig. 86 in │ „ ARCHITECTURE) │ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── H. H. RICHARDSON │United States (and see Plates XV │ and XVI, and Figs. 97, 98, 99 in │ article ARCHITECTURE) RICHARD M. HUNT │ „ CHARLES F. MCKIM │ „ STANFORD WHITE │ „ WILLIAM R. MEAD │ „ RUSSELL STURGIS │ „ STEEL CONSTRUCTION │ „ _Classical Revival in Germany_ KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL BERLIN (and Fig. 87 in ARCHITECTURE) POTSDAM (and Fig. 88 in ARCHITECTURE) MUNICH (and Fig. 89 in ARCHITECTURE) GOTTFRIED SEMPER _French Classicism_ ADOLPHE THEODORE BRONGNIART JACQUES IGNACE HITTORFF (Plate XII in ARCHITECTURE) _English “Commonsense”_ SIR CHARLES BARRY HALIFAX (Fig. 90 in ARCHITECTURE) WESTMINSTER (Houses of Parliament; see Fig. 91 in ARCHITECTURE) BUDAPEST (Fig. 92 in ARCHITECTURE) The sections of the article ARCHITECTURE dealing with France and Germany in the last two generations may best be supplemented by a study of the articles PARIS, BERLIN, VIENNA, and BUDAPEST. The following is a brief alphabetical list of architectural articles and topics in the _Britannica_, including topics for the builder and contractor. Abacus Abated Abbey Abutment Acroterium Adam, Robert Aedicula Aisle Aiwan Leone Battista Alberti Alcove Galeazzo Alessi Alley Almery Almonry Almshouse Alure Ambo Ambulatory Amphiprostyle Amphitheatre Andron Angel-lights Antae Ante-chapel Ante-choir Ante-fixae Anthemion Apophyge Apollodorus of Damascus Apse Apteral Aqueduct Araeostyle Araeosystyle Arcade Arch Architrave Archivolt Arcosolium Arena Arris Ashlar Astragal Astylar Atrium Attic Attic Base Baccio d’Agnolo Back-choir Bailey Balcony Ball-flower L. P. Baltard Balustrade Banker-marks Baptistery Barbican Bargeboard Giacomo Barocchio Bartizan Base Basement Basilica Batement-lights Baths Batter Battlement Bay Bed-mould Belfry Bell-cot Belvedere Bema Bench-table Bevel Bezantée Sir A. W. Blomfield G. W. Bodley Bonding Giuseppi Bonomi Francesco Borromini Bowtell Bracket Bramante Brattishing Sir Reginald Bray Brick, and Brickwork Bridges Broach Sir I. M. Brunel Filippo Brunelleschi Building Charles Bulfinch Bungalow William Butterfield Buttress Cable moulding Luigi Cagnola Caissons Camber Campanile N. le Camus de Mézières Canal Canalis Cancelli Candelabrum Canephorae Canopy Cantilever Foundations Capital Carpentry Cartouche Caryatides Casement Castle Cathedral Cathetus Cauliculus Cavaedium Cavea Cavetto Ceiling Cella Cements Chalcidicum Sir William Chambers Chamfer Chancel Chapter-house Charnel-house Chateau Chersiphron Chevet Chevron Chimney Chimney-piece Choir Chresmographion Cinque Cento Cleithral Clerestory Cloaca Cloister C. R. Cockerell Coenaculum Coffer, and Coffer Dams Cogging Colonnade Placido Columbani Column Compluvium Composite Order Compound pier Conch Concrete, Concrete Piers, etc. Consisterium Construction Coping Corbel Corbie Cornice Counterfort Coursed Rubble Cramps Crenelle Crest Crocket Crossing Cross springer Crypt Crypto-porticus Cubicle Cuneus Cupola Curvilinear Cusp François de Cuvilles Cyclopean Masonry Cyclostyle Cyma Cyrto-style Cyzicenus Daedalus Dais Dance (family) Decastyle Decorated Period Dentil Diaconicon Diastyle Diaulos Diazomata Dikka Dinocrates Dipteral Philibert De l’Orme Discharging Arch Distyle Docks Dodecastyle Dog-tooth Dome Donjon Door Doorway Dormer Dormitory Dosseret Dovetail Dowels Drafted masonry Dredging Dripstone Dromos Dungeon Early English Period Eaves Echinus Eiffel Tower Elevator Elizabethan Style H. L. Elmes James Elmes Embrasure Engaged Column Entablature Entasis Ephebeum Epi Epinaos Epistyle Estrade Eupalinus Eustyle Exedra Extrados Façade Facing Fan Vault Femerell Fenestration Feretory James Fergusson Festoon Fillet Finial Flamboyant Style Flèche Floor Flue Flying Buttress Pierre F. L. Fontaine Domenico Fontana Footing Foot-stall Formeret Foundation Fountain Charles Fowler Frater Freestone Fret Frieze Frigidarium Frontispiece Gable Gablets Galilee Gallery Gargoyle J. L. C. Garnier Garret Garretting Gate Gatehouse Gazebo Girder Glazing Glyph Glyptothek Godroon Gothic Grange Granite Griffe Groin C. G. Guarini Guilloche Gutta Gutter Joseph Gwilt Gynaeceum Hagioscope Half-timber Work Hall Halving Hammerbeam Roof J. A. Hansom Nicholas Hawksmoor Heating K. A. von Heideloff Helix Hemicycle Herring-bone Hexastyle Hip-knob Hipped roof Hippodamus Hippodrome J. I. Hittorff Hôtel-de-Ville Hôtel-Dieu Hot-water Heating and Supply House Hypaethros Hypocaust Hypostyle Hypotrachelium Ichnography Iconostasis Ictinus Imbrex Impluvium Impost In-antis Indian Architecture Intercolumniation Interlaced arches Intrados Jacobean Style Jamb Jesse Joinery Joints Joggles Inigo Jones Owen Jones Jubé Keel-moulding Keep Keystone Label Labrum Laconicum Lacunar Lady-Chapel Lancet Lantern Lanterns of the Dead Lectern Libon Lighting Lightning Conductor Limestone Lintel Loft Louver (Louvre) Lucarne Lunette C. F. McKim Machicolation Maksoora Manor-house Marble Mastaba Mausoleum Megaron Merlon Meshrebiya Meta Metope Mezzanine Mihrab Minaret Minbar Minster Modillion Module Monotriglyph Mortar Mortice Mosque Mouldings Moving Stairs Mullion Mural Decoration Mutule Narthex Nave W. E. Nesfield Newel Niche Notching Nymphaeum Obelisk Octastyle Odeum Oecus Ogee Ogive Oillets Order Ordinance Oriel Orientation Orthostatae Orthostyle Oubliette Ovolo Pagoda Painter-work Palace Palaestra Andrea Palladio Palladian Panel Pantheon Parament Parapet Parascenium Parclose Pargetting John Henry Parker Parquetry Parthenon Parvis Patera Patio Pavement Pavilion J. L. Pearson Paruzzi Pedestal Pediment Pendant Pendentive Pergamum Peripteral Peristyle Perpendicular Period Perpent Stones Perron Philon Piazza Pier Pilaster Pile Foundations Pillar Pinacotheca Pinnacle Piscina Plan Planceer Plaster Plinth Podium Poppy Heads Porch Porticullis Portico Postern Presbytery Prick Posts Propylaea Proscenium Prostyle Prothesis Pseudo-dipteral Pseudo-peripteral Pteron Philon A. W. N. Pugin Pulpit Purlin Pycnostyle Pyramid Pyramidion Pythis Quadriga Quatrefoil Quoins Rag-stone Random Rear vault Refectory Regula Reredos Respond Rib George Richardson H. H. Richardson Thomas Rickman River Engineering Road Rood Rough Cast Rubble Rustication Sacristy Saddle Sangallo (family) Sanmichele Scabbling Scaffold Scamilli impares K. F. Schinkel Sir G. G. Scott Scotia Sedilia Gottfried Semper Sepulchre, Easter Severy Sewerage Sexpartite vault Shaft R. Norman Shaw Shoring Sill Skeleton Construction Slaking Slip Joints Slype Sir John Soane Soffit Solar (Soller) Sommer Spandril Sphaeristerium Spina Spire Spire light Springer Squinch Squint Stag Bars Stage Stained Glass Staircase Stairn Stall Stanchion Steam-Heating Steel Construction Steeple Stele Stereobate Stillicidium Stilted Stoa Stone, Stone Wash Storey G. E. Street Russell Sturgis Style Stylobate Bartolommeo Suardi Sudatorium Surbase Surveying Suspensura Systyle Tabernacle Tablinum Tabularium Taenia Talar Talus Tambour Taper Tas-de-charge Tegula Telamones Temenos Temple Tenon Tepidarium Terminal Figures Terrace Tessellated Tetrastoön Tetrastyle Thatch Theatre Thesaurus Tholobate Tholos John Thorpe Timber Sir William Tite Toran Torus Tower Trabeated Tracery Trachelium Transept Transom Transverse Rib Trapezophoron Trefoil Trial Boring Tribune Triforium Triglyph Triumphal arch Tudor flower Tudor period Tunnel Tunnel-vault Turning-piece Turret Under-croft Vane Vault Ventilation Verandah Verge Vesica Piscis Vestibule Vignette Villa Viollet-le-Duc Vitruvius Volute Voussoir Wall, and Walling, and Wall Coverings Alfred Waterhouse Water Spray Ventilation Wattle and dab Wedging Well Foundations Wind braces Window Sir Christopher Wren James Wyatt Xystus