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CHAPTER XXX
FOR NAVAL OFFICERS
The scope of a naval officer’s professional interests is so broad that
the present chapter of this Guide could not, without duplicating other
chapters, indicate all the aspects of the Britannica with which he is
directly concerned. And he will find that his use of the Britannica is
simplified by the subdivisions about to be specified, which virtually
present his subjects under four different heads. Of course he may be
called upon, in the exercise of his duties, simultaneously to think and
to act in all his capacities, to concentrate upon the swift solution of
one problem his knowledge of warfare, of shipbuilding, of navigation and
of mechanical engineering; but his reading upon these topics naturally
divides itself into these four parts.
[Sidenote: Three Other Relevant Chapters]
Inasmuch as army officers, even when they are at sea, are passengers,
and, save in relation to the discipline of their troops, have nothing to
do with the ship’s management, it could not be assumed that the present
chapter would appeal to them. But naval officers, when co-operating in a
land expedition, need to employ every kind of knowledge that is of use
to army officers, and as the chapter _For Army Officers_ in this Guide
would therefore in any case be read by them, it has seemed convenient to
include in it the description of those articles in the Britannica which
deal with war in general.
The chapter _For Marine Transportation Men_ in this Guide is also one to
which the naval officer should refer, as it deals with ships and
navigation in general. The articles SHIP and SHIPBUILDING mentioned in
that chapter are (except for the historical section of the former) by
Sir Philip Watts, designer of the British “Dreadnoughts” and
“Super-Dreadnoughts;” and the article SHIPPING is by Douglas Owen, of
the Royal Naval War College at Portsmouth. Obviously these and many
other articles described in that chapter are of the greatest importance
to naval officers.
The chapter _For Engineers_ in this Guide describes the articles dealing
with steam engines, internal combustion engines, electrical machinery
and fuels of all kinds; and it would be a waste of space to repeat in
this chapter a summary of the Britannica treatment of these subjects.
All three of the chapters mentioned should therefore be treated as
forming constituent parts of the general plan of this present chapter,
in which the naval officer will find no repetition of their contents.
[Sidenote: The Key Article]
The article to which he will naturally first turn is NAVY AND NAVIES
(Vol. 19, p. 299), by David Hannay, author of _A Short History of the
Royal Navy_. This article is equivalent to 60 pages of this Guide in
length. It contains:
_Naval Personnel._
Sketches of the _Administrative History of navies_: _Athenian_;
_Roman_; _Byzantine_; _Medieval_; _British_, with special attention to
the period since the Restoration, and the reforms under James II when
Samuel Pepys was secretary;
_French_—modern navy dating from the time of Richelieu;
_Spanish_—a great navy without an organization before the 18th
century;
_Dutch_—good seamen and well-fed, led by able admirals, but
unorganized, and unimportant after the 17th century;
_United States_—the first great extra-European power on the sea;
_Russian_—dating from the reign of Peter the Great, when it was
organized and led by foreigners.
_The Balance of Navies in History_: influence of sea-power—“when
Napoleon fell, the navy of Great Britain was not merely the first in
the world; it was the only powerful navy in existence.” _Modern
Rivalry_ between Italy and Germany (1871), United States (1890),
Japan; England and the Dual Alliance—“naval scares” since 1874;
British Naval Defence Act of 1889; Russia’s navy crushed (1904); new
navies rivalling Great Britain and France,—Italy, Germany, United
States, Japan.
_Latest developments_: “Dreadnoughts”; Building Programmes.
_Bibliography_ (about 1800 words).
_Naval Strategy and Tactics_.
_Historical evolution_: inter-relation of the ship’s capacity and
armament.
_Early history_: ramming demanded oars for propulsion; small warships,
large fighting crews,—no blockade, short cruises;
_Greek and Roman methods_: boarding introduced by Romans; “bearding,”
that is, fortifying with iron bands across the bows, an early form of
armor plate.
_Sailing ships_: ramming discarded; “line ahead” formation displaces
“line abreast”; principles of fighting tactics—order at beginning to
be kept throughout, thus no advantage taken of enemy’s disorder;
Clerk’s theories (1790–97)—not maximum safety but immediate mêlée the
_desideratum_; Suffren, Rodney and Howe and their disregard of
accepted tactics.
_Improved shipbuilding and modern times_: New problems—steam
propulsion, its gain in speed, but its dependence on fuel; fleet in
being; risk of transporting troops while enemy is unbeaten; ramming
and pell-mell battles forbidden by torpedoes; searchlight as check to
torpedoes; failure of attempts to “bottle up” harbours; gun-fire still
the great factor; position; speed; submarines still an unknown factor.
_Bibliography_.
[Sidenote: Naval Administration]
The first part of this article NAVY AND NAVIES should be supplemented by
the article ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION (Vol. 1, p. 195), by Admiral Sir R.
Vesey Hamilton, and, for the United States, the late Admiral W. T.
Sampson. The American part of this article describes the divisions and
the working of the Navy Department, its bureaus, judge advocate-general,
office of naval intelligence, boards etc.; and there is additional
information on the subject in such articles as DOCKYARDS, and UNITED
STATES NAVAL ACADEMY.
For the legal side of naval administration the reader should study the
article ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION (Vol. 1, p. 205), by Sir Walter
Phillimore, former president of the International Law Association (and
author of the Britannica article ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF), and, for the
United States, by J. Arthur Barrett; and also the general articles
INTERNATIONAL LAW (Vol. 14, p. 694), by Sir Thomas Barclay, author of
_Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_, and INTERNATIONAL
LAW, PRIVATE (Vol. 14, p. 701), by Dr. John Westlake, formerly professor
of international law, Cambridge University, and member for the United
Kingdom of the International (Hague) Court of Arbitration; as well as
such special articles as SEARCH (Vol. 24, p. 560), by Sir Thomas
Barclay, and SEA LAWS (Vol. 24, p. 535), by Sir Travers Twiss.
[Sidenote: Policy, Strategy, Tactics]
It has already been noticed that the closing part of the article NAVY
AND NAVIES dealt with strategy and tactics in a general way. This
subject is treated in fuller detail by Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge,
G.C.B. (former Director of Naval Intelligence, British Navy, author of
_Sea-Power and other Studies_) in two articles SEA-POWER (Vol. 24, p.
548) and SEA, COMMAND OF THE (Vol. 24, p. 529). Each of these articles
will be of great value and interest to the naval officer as a summary
and criticism of the theories of Captain A. T. Mahan and Vice-Admiral P.
H. Colomb; and this will be made evident by the brief outline of the two
articles which follows.
Article, SEA-POWER—Use of the term to mean (1) a state pre-eminently
strong at sea; and (2)—as in this article—the various factors in a
state’s naval strength. Thucydides as a forerunner of Mahan; he makes
Pericles in comparing Athenian resources with those of her enemies
comment on the importance of “sea-power.”
The meaning of sea-power can only be learned historically. Although
there have been more land-wars, “the course of history has been
profoundly changed more often by contests on the water.” Salamis saved
Greece and held back Oriental invasion. The loss of the Peloponnesian
War by Athens was due to her weakening sea-power. The First Punic War,
Roman rather than Carthaginian control of the Mediterranean, was won
by Roman naval predominance. Mahommedan conquest spread west in Africa
only with the creation of a navy. The crusades could not have
continued had not Mahommedan naval power sunk as the Venetian, Pisan,
and Genoese grew. The defeat of Genoa by Venice gave the latter a
right to perform the ceremony of “wedding the sea” with a ring as
token of “perpetual sway.” Lepanto (1571) the end of Turkish
sea-power.
Spanish and Portuguese sea-power crushed by English growth and the
loss of the Armada. Early English naval history: the importance of the
battle of Dover in 1217. Appearance of standing navies. The New World
and its influence on sea-power. The sea-power of the Dutch; its sudden
rise; its basis in foreign trade; the Dutch wars with England resulted
in England’s becoming the first great naval power, but did not crush
the United Provinces because of their sea-power. Torrington and the
“Fleet in Being” in 1690. Change in naval operations in 17th
century—the scene thereafter in the enemy’s waters, not near the coast
of England.
The 18th century. Rise of Russia’s sea-power—an artificial creation.
Seven Years’ War and its gains to Great Britain. War of American
Independence: British mistakes—the enemy’s coast _not_ considered the
frontier. Wars of the French Revolution and Empire: Great Britain’s
advantage not in organization, discipline or “science,” but in
sea-experience.
The War of 1812. “The British had now to meet the _élite_ of one of
the finest communities of seamen ever known.... In any future war
British sea-power, great as it may be, should not receive shocks like
those that it unquestionably did suffer in 1812.”
Later Manifestations of Sea-Power. American Civil War—“By dominating
the rivers the Federals cut the Confederacy asunder; and, by the power
they possessed of moving troops by sea at will, perplexed and harassed
the defence, and facilitated the occupation of important points.”
Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78—Turkish control of Black Sea forced
Russians to invade by land through the difficult Balkans. Chilean
Civil War of 1891—an army defeated by a navy. Chino-Japanese War of
1894–95—Japanese navy in transport work and in crushing last
resistance. Spanish-American War: “Spaniards were defeated by the
superiority of the American sea-power.”
Article, SEA, COMMAND OF THE—Sketch of Sovereignty of the Sea; Command
different from Sovereignty or Dominion.
Attempts to gain Command: Dutch Wars.
Strategic Command or Control—largely the power of carrying out
considerable over-sea expeditions at will. Seeking the enemy’s fleet.
Temporary command in smaller operations.
[Sidenote: Special Historical Articles]
As for the army officer, so the Britannica has for the naval officer
many separate articles on wars, campaigns, battles, generals,
commanders. The following list of articles will serve as a guide to a
course of reading constituting a history of naval warfare, furnishing
the concrete separate facts on which are based the articles already
described.
_Ancient History._
_Greece_: articles _Salamis_, _Themistocles_, _Xerxes I_,
_Peloponnesian War_, _Pericles_.
_Rome_: articles _Punic Wars_, _Carthage_, _Pompey_, _Actium_.
_Medieval History._
_Crusades_; _Swold_; _Dover, Battle of_; _Sluys, Battle of_;
_Espagnols sur Mer_ (and article _Edward III_), _Chioggia_ (and
articles _Venice_ and _Genoa_).
_16th Century._
_Lepanto_ (and article _Don John of Austria_).
_Armada_ (and articles on _Howard_, _Hawkins_, _Drake_, _Frobisher_,
_Raleigh_, _Richard Grenville_, and the other heroes of this first
bright glow of England’s naval glory).
_The Era of Sailing Vessels._
_Dutch Wars_ (and articles _Tromp_, _Robert Blake_, _Ayscue_, _De
Ruyter_, _Cornelius De Witt_, _William Penn_, _George Monk_, _Sir John
Lawson_, _James II_, _Prince Rupert_, _First Earl of Sandwich_,
_Abraham Duquesne_).
_Grand Alliance, Naval Operations_ (and articles _Earl of Torrington_,
and _Beachy Head, Battle of_; _La Hogue_, _Earl of Oxford_ [Edward
Russell] and _Tourville_).
_Spanish Succession, Naval Operations_ (and _Château-Renault_,
_Benbow_, _Rooke_, _Cloudesley Shovel_, _Duguay-Trouin_, _Forbin_).
_Austrian Succession, Naval Operations_ (and the articles _Edward
Vernon_, _Lord Anson_, _Toulon, Battle of_, and _Thomas Mathews_,
marking the official sanction in England of an absurd formal system of
tactics).
_Seven Years’ War, Naval Operations_ (and _Boscawen_, _Byng_, _Hawke_,
_Pocock_, _Quiberon_).
_American War of Independence, Naval Operations_ (and _Esek Hopkins_,
_John Paul Jones_, _Comte d’Estaing_, _Suffren St. Tropez_, _Thomas
Truxtun_, _Lord Howe_, _John Byron_, _Hotham_, _Hyde Parker_,
_Rodney_, _Guichen_, _Comte de Grasse_).
_French Revolutionary Wars, Naval Operations_ (and _First of June,
Battle of_, _Howe_, _Villaret de Joyeuse_, _Lord Bridport_, _Lord
Hood_, _Earl of St. Vincent_ [John Jervis], _St. Vincent, Battle of_,
_Lord Keith_, _Lord Duncan_, _Nile_, _Nelson_, _Sir Thomas
Troubridge_).
_Napoleonic Campaigns, Naval Operations_ (and _Baron de Saumarez_,
_Copenhagen, Battle of_, _Sir Hyde Parker_, _Sir Robert Calder_,
_Villeneuve_, _Trafalgar_, _Lord Collingwood_).
_American War of_ 1812 (and _John Rodgers_, _Isaac Hull_, _William
Bainbridge_, _Stephen Decatur_, _David Porter_, _Oliver Hazard Perry_,
_Sir Philip Broke_, _Thomas Macdonough_).
And _Lissa_ (1811), closely resembling Trafalgar, and _Navarino_,
decisive for Greek Independence.
_The Era of Steam._
_American Civil War_ (and _Hampton Roads_, _Andrew Hull Foote_, _New
Madrid_, _D. G. Farragut_, _D. D. Porter_, _W. B. Cushing_).
_Chile-Peruvian War._
_Chilean Civil War._
_Chino-Japanese War_ (and see _Ito_).
_Spanish-American War_ (and see the articles _W. T. Sampson_, _W. S.
Schley_, _George Dewey_, _Pascual Cervera y Topete Cervera_).
_Russo-Japanese War_ (and _Togo_, _Dogger Bank_, _Tsushima_).
[Sidenote: Armaments]
The subject of _armaments_ is treated in the articles SHIP and
SHIPBUILDING (see chapter _For Marine Transportation Men_), ARMOUR
PLATES, with illustrations, by Major William Egerton Edwards, late
lecturer at the Royal Naval War College, Greenwich, ORDNANCE,
AMMUNITION, TORPEDO, etc.
The following is an alphabetical list of articles in the Britannica of
especial interest to naval officers or other students of naval warfare.
Actium
Admiral
Admiralty Administration
Admiralty Jurisdiction
American Civil War
American War of Independence
American War of 1812
Ammunition
Anson, Lord
Armada
Armour Plates
Arms and Armour
Ayscue
Bainbridge, William
Beachy Head
Benbow
Beresford
Blake, Robert
Boscawen
Bridport, Lord
Broke, Sir Philip
Byng
Byron, John
Calder, Sir Robert
Camperdown
Carthage
Casemate
Case-shot
Cervera
Château-Renault
Chile-Peruvian War
Chilean Civil War
Chino-Japanese War
Chioggia
Coaling Stations
Coast Defence
Coast Guard
Codrington
Coligny
Collingwood, Lord
Colomb
Commodore
Copenhagen, Battle of
Crusades
Cushing, W. B.
Decatur, Stephen
d’Estaing
De Ruyter
De Saumarez, Baron
Dewey, George
De Witt, Cornelius
Dockyards
Dogger Bank
Dover, Battle of (1217)
Drake
Duguay-Trouin
Duilius
Duncan, Lord
Duquesne, Abraham
Dutch Wars
Edward III
Espagnols sur Mer
Farragut, D. G.
Fireship
First of June
Flagship
Fleet
Flying Column
Foote, Andrew Hull
Forbin
French Revolutionary Wars
Frigate
Frobisher
Genoa
Grand Alliance
Grasse, Comte de
Grenville, Richard
Greek Independence
Guardship Perry,
Guichen
Hampton Roads
Hawke
Hawkins
Hood, Lord
Hopkins, Esek
Hotham
Howard
Howe, Lord
Hull, Isaac
International Law
James II
Jones, John Paul
Keith, Lord
La Hogue
Lawson, Sir John
Lepanto
Liner
Lissa (1811, 1866)
Macdonough, Thomas
Madrid, New
Mahan
Marines
Mathews, Thomas
Meloria
Miaoulis
Midshipman
Monk, George
Napoleonic Campaigns
Nauarchia
Naucrary
Naval Operations
Navarino
Navy and Navies
Nelson
Nile, Battle of the
Ordnance
Oxford, Earl of
Parker, Hyde
Parker, Sir Hyde
Peloponnesian War
Penn, William
Pepys
Pericles
Perry, Oliver Hazard
Piracy
Pocock
Pompey
Porter, David
Porter, D. D.
Privateer
Punic Wars
Quiberon, Battle of
Raleigh
Range-finder
Rodgers, John
Rodney
Rooke
Rupert, Prince
Russo-Japanese War
Saint-Bon
Saint Vincent
Saints, Battle of the
Salamis
Sampson, W. T.
Sandwich, 1st Earl of
Schley, W. S.
Sea, Command of the
Sea Laws
Seamanship
Sea-Power
Search
Seven Years’ War
Ship, Shipbuilding
Shovel, Cloudesley
Sluys
Spanish-American War
Spanish Succession
Squadron
Submarine Mines
Suffren, St. Tropez
Swold
Themistocles
Togo
Torpedo
Torrington
Toulon, Battle of
Tourville
Trafalgar
Tromp
Troubridge, Sir Thomas
Truxtun, Thomas
Tsushima
U. S. Naval Academy
Venice
Vernon, Edward
Villaret de Joyeuse
Villeneuve
Xerxes I