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BIBLE STUDY It is impossible for the student to consider the subject of Bible Study without being impressed by the immense labour and the profound scholarship which have been devoted to the interpretation and discussion of Scripture. Continued investigation has solved many difficulties, but has also vastly increased the mass of evidences and conjectures which must be weighed in connection with any doubtful passages. The Britannica tells us, for example, (Vol. 3, pp. 903, 904) that the translators of the King James’s version spent only two years and nine months over their task, while the work on the Revised Version took eleven years for the New Testament and fourteen for the Old Testament. [Sidenote: The Bible as a Focus of Thought] It is equally true that all the time which learned men have given to translating and elucidating the text seems nothing when it is compared with the time that mankind at large have spent in reading it. But the Britannica mentions a report of the great English Bible Society, the “British and Foreign,” in which the copies circulated by it are totalled at more than 198 million, and, for the American Bible Society and its federated associations, it gives a total of more than 84 million copies (Vol. 3, p. 907). It has often been said that the English Bible is the only example of a translation that became more famous than the original, and it is as true that no other translation has been the source of so many secondary translations, for versions in no less than 530 distinct languages and dialects have been derived from the English text. It is interesting to note, although in this case the English version has certainly nothing to do with the matter, that “in Italy, by a departure from the traditional policy of the Roman Church, the newly formed, ‘Pious Society of St. Jerome for the Dissemination of the Holy Gospels’ issued in 1901, from the Vatican press, a new Italian version of the Four Gospels and _Acts_,” and sold 400,000 copies at 4 cents each. As a sort of threshold-study, it will be well to consider three topics: Hebrew Literature, Hebrew Religion and Biblical History. [Sidenote: Preliminaries] HEBREW LITERATURE (Vol. 13, p. 169), by Dr. Arthur Cowley, of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, points out that the term “Hebrew Literature” is loosely used of “all works written in Hebrew characters, whether the language be Aramaic, Arabic, or even some vernacular not related to Hebrew;” and that “this literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon, the Old Testament.” This article on Hebrew Literature may be supplemented by the following articles: TARGUM, by John Frederick Stenning, lecturer in Aramaic at Oxford. HALAKHA │by Israel Abrahams, reader in │ Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, │ Cambridge. QARAITES │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── TALMUD │by Stanley Arthur Cook, lecturer in │ Hebrew and Syriac, Cambridge. MIDRASH │ „ SEADIAH, by Dr. Arthur Cowley. MAIMONIDES, by Herbert Loewe, curator of Oriental Literature, Cambridge. [Sidenote: Hebrew Religion] Quite as important is the article HEBREW RELIGION (Vol. 13, p. 176), by the Rev. Dr. Owen Charles Whitehouse of Christ’s and Cheshunt Colleges, Cambridge. His treatment of the subject is comparative and historical. There is an interesting summary of what is known and may be inferred about pre-Mosaic religion; and it is important to notice that the author does not consider that the plural Elohim used in certain Old Testament passages to mean “God” is to be understood as “a comprehensive expression for the multitude of gods embraced in the One God of Old Testament religion,” but explains the plural as one “of majesty” like the “we” of royalty. Blood-offerings and magic charms against demons and jinns may be assumed as belonging to the early Hebrew religion as to the later Arabian period before Mahomet. Dr. Whitehouse thinks that there is little or no trace of totemism but possibly some of ancestor-worship in the Jews’ religion. Among the many articles supplementing this general treatment of Hebrew religion the following are possibly the most important: CIRCUMCISION, by Israel Abrahams. TERAPHIM, by W. Robertson Smith and G. H. Box, formerly lecturer in theology, Oxford. BAAL, by W. Robertson Smith and Stanley Arthur Cook, editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. CALF, THE GOLDEN, by S. A. Cook. HIGH PLACES. FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. PASSOVER, by Dr. Joseph Jacobs of the Jewish Theological Seminary of New York City. PENTECOST, by Dr. O. C. Whitehouse. ARK, by Stanley Arthur Cook. TABERNACLE and TEMPLE, by Dr. Archibald R. S. Kennedy, professor of Hebrew and Semitic languages, Edinburgh. EPHOD, by S. A. Cook. URIM AND THUMMIM, by G. H. Box. PROPHET, by W. Robertson Smith, Owen Charles Whitehouse, Adolf Harnack of Berlin, and Professor A. C. McGiffert of Union Theological Seminary, New York. JEHOVAH, by George Foot Moore, professor of history of religion, Harvard. MESSIAH, by W. Robertson Smith and O. C. Whitehouse. ESCHATOLOGY, by Dr. A. E. Garvie, principal of New College, Hampstead. ANGEL, by William Henry Bennett, professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. [Sidenote: Biblical History] The third topic is history and for this the student should read the article JEWS (Vol. 15, p. 371), especially the part on _Old Testament History_, by S. A. Cook; the article PALESTINE, _Physical Features_, by R. A. S. Macalister, director of excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund, _Old Testament History_, by S. A. Cook, especially the treatment of Biblical Religion (pp. 610–611 of Vol. 20); CANAAN, by Dr. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, formerly Oriel professor of interpretation of Scripture, Oxford; HITTITES, by D. G. Hogarth, keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. [Sidenote: The Article Bible] But of course the central article for the Bible student is the article BIBLE (Vol. 3, p. 849), which is divided into two main parts—_Old Testament_ and _New Testament_, each of these being divided in turn into five parts: Canon, Texts and Versions, Textual Criticism, Higher Criticism, and Chronology. This logical arrangement greatly enhances the value of the article, which is in itself an excellent summary of the subject written by the following authorities: Dr. Samuel Rolles Driver, professor of Hebrew, Oxford, on Old Testament canon and chronology; John Frederick Stenning, dean of Wadham College, Oxford, and lecturer in Aramaic, on Old Testament texts and versions; Dr. George Buchanan Gray, professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis, Mansfield College, Oxford, on Old Testament textual and higher criticism; Dr. William Sanday, professor of Divinity and canon of Christ Church, Oxford, on New Testament canon; the Rev. Kirsopp Lake, author of _The Text of the New Testament_, etc., and professor of New Testament exegesis at Leiden, on New Testament texts and versions and textual criticism; Dr. Francis Crawford Burkitt, professor of divinity, Cambridge, and author of _The Gospel History and its Transmission_, etc., on New Testament higher criticism; and Cuthbert Hamilton Turner, of Magdalen College, Oxford, on New Testament chronology. The article BIBLE, ENGLISH (Vol. 3, p. 894), by Anna C. Paues, author of _A Fourteenth Century Biblical Version_, and Canon Henson of Westminster Abbey (on the Revised Version) is accompanied by a plate with fac-similes of several early English Bibles and is besides of special value as giving quotations from different versions in Anglo-Saxon and later English. The article BIBLE SOCIETIES (Vol. 3, p. 905), by the Rev. Thomas Herbert Darlow, literary superintendent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, will also be of value to the student. [Sidenote: Inspiration] One other general article should be studied before the articles on different books of the Bible are taken up. This is—INSPIRATION (Vol. 14, p. 645), by Dr. Alfred Ernest Garvie, author of _Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus_; it outlines the principal theories of inspiration— (1) Mechanical dictation or verbal inspiration; (2) Dynamic influence or degrees of inspiration; (3) Essential inspiration, distinguishing matters of doctrine and conduct from the remaining contents of Scripture; (4) Vital inspiration, emphasizing religious and moral life. [Sidenote: The Hexateuch] A course of study in the books of the Bible may well start with the outline in the article BIBLE, especially pages 851–854 for the Old Testament. For the Hexateuch the student should read first the brief article HEXATEUCH; then what there is under BIBLE on pp. 851–852 of Vol. 3; then under JEWS for the early period; and then the articles: GENESIS, by S. A. Cook; and the subsidiary articles: COSMOGONY, EDEN, PARADISE, ADAM, EVE, ABEL, CAIN, ENOCH, LAMECH, NOAH, DELUGE, ARARAT, ARK, BABEL, CANAAN, GENEALOGY, NIMROD, HAM, SHEM, JAPHETH, ABRAHAM, BEERSHEBA, MELCHIZEDEK, ISAAC, MIDIAN, ABIMELECH, ISHMAEL, ESAU, JACOB, JACOB’S WELL, BETHEL, ISRAEL, SIMEON, SHECHEM, REUBEN, ISSACHAR, ZEBULUN, DAN, NAPHTALI, ASHER, GAD, MANASSEH, JOSEPH, BENJAMIN, LOT, MOAB, AMMONITES, GOSHEN, etc. EXODUS, BOOK OF, by John Frederick Stenning, and EXODUS by S. A. Cook; and the articles MOSES, AARON, RAMESES, PITHOM, AMALEKITES, JETHRO, PASSOVER, SINAI, HOREB, DECALOGUE, SABBATH, CALF (GOLDEN), TABERNACLE, ARK, URIM AND THUMMIM. LEVITICUS, by J. F. Stenning and LEVITES, by S. A. Cook; and SACRIFICE, ATONEMENT AND DAY OF ATONEMENT, MOLOCH, PENTECOST. NUMBERS, by Dr. James Alexander Paterson, professor of Hebrew, New College, Edinburgh; and the articles BALAAM, HEBRON. DEUTERONOMY, by Dr. Paterson, and the articles EZRA, NEHEMIAH, and JOSIAH. JOSHUA, by S. A. Cook, and the articles AMALEKITES, GIBEONITES, HIVITES, PHILISTINES, GEZER, JUDAH, CALEB, SHECHEM. JUDGES, BOOK OF, by S. A. Cook, and the articles, OTHNIEL, EHUD, DEBORAH, GIBEON, ABIMELECH, JEPHTHAH, SHIBBOLETH, SAMSON, EPHOD, TERAPHIM, MICAH (of Ephraim). SAMUEL, BOOKS OF, and SAMUEL, by S. A. Cook; and the articles ELI, SHILOH, ARK, SAUL, JONATHAN, DAVID, GOLIATH, AHITHOPHEL, JASHAR, ABSALOM, JERAHMEEL, KENITES. KINGS, BOOKS OF, by S. A. Cook; and the articles DAVID, ADONIJAH, SOLOMON, TEMPLE, JERUSALEM, ABIATHAR, JOAB, EPHRAIM, JEROBOAM, REHOBOAM, ASA, OMRI, AHAB, JEHOSHAPHAT, JEHORAM, ATHALIAH, AHAZIAH, ELIJAH, CARMEL, JORDAN, ELISHA, JEHU, RECHABITES, JOASH, AZARIAH, HOSEA, UZZIAH, AHAZ, ISAIAH, HEZEKIAH, MANASSEH, JOSIAH, JEHOIACHIN, SAMARIA. CHRONICLES, by W. Robertson Smith and S. A. Cook; and the articles ABSALOM, DAVID, UZZIAH, JUBILEES, MIDRASH, LEVITES and many mentioned above under SAMUEL and KINGS. EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF, by S. A. Cook; the article EZRA; and, as the books are to be grouped with CHRONICLES, that article and DEUTERONOMY, and the article SAMARITANS and those on the two “apocryphal” books, EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF, and EZRA, FOURTH BOOK OF, by Dr. Robert Henry Charles, lecturer in Biblical studies, Oxford. See also SYNAGOGUE. [Sidenote: The Prophets] For the prophetical books the article PROPHET as an introduction, and then: ISAIAH, by T. K. Cheyne; and, for outline, under BIBLE, Vol. 3, p. 853; and EMMANUEL (on chap. 7) and MESSIAH and ATONEMENT (on chap. 53). JEREMIAH, by T. K. Cheyne; and the articles BARUCH, ZEDEKIAH, NEBUCHADREZZAR, EDOM, AMMONITES, MOAB. LAMENTATIONS, by the Rev. Charles James Ball, lecturer in ASSYRIOLOGY, Oxford, with peculiarly valuable information about poetical structure and acrostic verse, some suggested emendations of the text, and a summary of the arguments in regard to the authorship. EZEKIEL, by Professor C. H. Toy of Harvard University; and the articles ZEDEKIAH, and, for certain literary forms, ALLEGORY and PARABLE. [Sidenote: Minor Prophets] The Minor Prophets: see Vol. 3, p. 853; Vol. 22, p. 443; Vol. 13, p. 183. HOSEA, by W. Robertson Smith and the Rev. Henry Wheeler Robinson, professor of church history, Rawdon College, Leeds; articles BAAL, CALF (GOLDEN), etc. JOEL, by W. Robertson Smith and T. K. Cheyne; and ESCHATOLOGY, etc. AMOS, by T. K. Cheyne; JEROBOAM, etc. OBADIAH, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson; and EDOM, ESCHATOLOGY, etc. JONAH, by T. K. Cheyne; and the article NINEVEH, and, for an explanation of the “great fish,” COSMOGONY. MICAH, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson; and SAMARIA, HIGH PLACE, MESSIAH, ESCHATOLOGY. NAHUM, by G. H. Box; NINEVEH, etc. HABAKKUK, by H. W. Robinson; CHALDAEAN, etc. ZEPHANIAH, by S. A. Cook; and BAAL, MOLOCH, COSTUME, _Oriental_ (Vol. 7, p. 226 sq., for chap. 1, v. 8), etc. HAGGAI, by W. Robertson Smith and Dr. A. J. Grieve, professor at the United Independent College, Bradford; and the article TEMPLE. ZECHARIAH, by Julius Wellhausen, professor at Göttingen, and H. W. Robinson; and the articles ANGEL, TEMPLE, MESSIAH, ZION, JAPHETH and IONIANS (for “Javan” of chap. 9, v. 13). MALACHI, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson. [Sidenote: Psalms] PSALMS is by W. Robertson Smith and Dr. Robert Hatch Kennett, Canon of Ely and professor of Hebrew, Cambridge; read the articles HALLEL, DAVID, SOLOMON, TEMPLE, LEVITES (for Levitical Psalms), ASAPH, CHRONICLES, EZRA, PSALTERY, LITURGY, the section of Hebrew Hymnody in, and the whole article HYMNS; BIBLE, ENGLISH, for the version of the Psalms in the English Prayer Book from the Great Bible; and, for Psalms 9, 10, 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119 and 145, and the article ACROSTIC. See also R. H. Charles’s article on the apocryphal book, SOLOMON, PSALMS OF. [Sidenote: Wisdom Literature] The student should read the article WISDOM LITERATURE, by Prof. C. H. Toy of Harvard as an introduction to PROVERBS, JOB and ECCLESIASTES (and to the apocryphal WISDOM, BOOK OF—see article by Professor Toy; ECCLESIASTICUS,—see article by William Emery Barnes, Hulsean professor of Divinity, Cambridge; TOBIT,—see article by St. George Stock, lecturer University of Birmingham; and 4th MACCABEES—see the article MACCABEES, by Dr. William Fairweather, editor of Maccabees in the “Cambridge Bible for Schools.”) PROVERBS, BOOK OF, by C. H. Toy; and the articles SOLOMON, PROVERB and, for other famous collections, PUBLILIUS, ERASMUS, etc. JOB, by Dr. Andrew B. Davidson, late professor of Oriental languages, New College, Edinburgh, and author of a Commentary on Job, and Prof. C. H. Toy; and the articles DEVIL (for the meaning of “Satan” in chap. 1, v. 6); SABAEANS, UZ, BEHEMOTH, etc. ECCLESIASTES, by Professor Toy; the articles PESSIMISM, ESCHATOLOGY, SADDUCEES. CANTICLES, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson. [Sidenote: Other Old Testament Books] ESTHER, by T. K. Cheyne and, on the “additions,” Dr. Robert Henry Charles, Grinfield lecturer, Oxford; and the articles AHASUERUS, SUSA, COSMOGONY, PURIM. RUTH, by W. Robertson Smith and S. A. Cook; and the articles BETHLEHEM, CALEB, and, for the marriage custom underlying the story, the article on LEVIRATE. DANIEL, by John Dyneley Prince, professor of Semitic languages, Columbia University, and, for the “additions,” Susannah, Bel and the Dragon, and The Song of the Three Children, the Rev. Dr. Robert Henry Charles; the article SEMITIC LANGUAGES for the Aramaic of chapters 2 (from verse 4) to 7; ANGELS, GABRIEL, MICHAEL; CHALDAEAN and CHALDEE; BELSHAZZAR; APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE (for chapters 7–12). [Sidenote: Apocrypha] Before passing to the New Testament the student should read the article APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, by Robert Henry Charles; and the articles on the separate books: EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF (1 Esdras) and EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE), both by Robert Henry Charles; JUDITH, by the same scholar; ECCLESIASTICUS, by Dr. W. E. Barnes; BARUCH, by R. H. Charles; TOBIT, by St. George Stock; JEREMY, EPISTLE OF, by R. H. Charles; MACCABEES, BOOKS OF, and MACCABEES, by the Rev. Dr. William Fairweather; MANASSES, PRAYER OF, by R. H. Charles, and MANASSEH; and WISDOM, BOOK OF, by C. H. Toy. [Sidenote: New Testament] The general articles preliminary to a study of the New Testament are:—besides the part of the article BIBLE dealing with New Testament, Canon, Criticism, Text, Chronology, etc.—the following: MESSIAH, by W. Robertson Smith and Dr. Owen Charles Whitehouse, lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. JESUS CHRIST, by the Very Rev. Dr. Joseph Armitage Robinson, dean of Westminster, constituting a critical outline of the gospel story. CHRISTIANITY, by Dr. George William Knox, late professor of philosophy and history of religion, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. In outlining a course of study on the New Testament, the order of the books as printed in English Bibles will not be followed absolutely. Here, as in studying the Old Testament, a rearrangement may be worth while for topical study. [Sidenote: The Gospels] But first the student should read the article GOSPEL, by the Rev. Dr. Vincent Henry Stanton, professor of divinity, Cambridge, and author of _The Gospels as Historical Documents_, etc.; and the article by Dr. Kirsopp Lake on TATIAN the compiler of the Diatessaron or “Gospel of the Four Gospels.” For the gospel story the student should read the following separate articles: JOHN THE BAPTIST, HEROD ANTIPAS, SALOME, JOSEPH (Vol. 15, p. 513, col. 2), MARY, IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, BETHLEHEM, NAZARETH, NAZARENES, EBIONITES, GALILEE, CAPERNAUM, CANA, JORDAN, PETER, ANDREW, JAMES, JOHN, PHILIP, BARTHOLOMEW, THOMAS, MATTHEW, JUDAS, DEMONOLOGY, POSSESSION, EXORCISM, MIRACLE, MARY MAGDALENE, NATHANAEL, PHARISEES, SADDUCEES, SABBATH, PASSOVER, EUCHARIST, PARABLE, CAESAREA PHILIPPI, JUDAEA, JERUSALEM, BETHANY, OLIVES, MOUNT OF; GETHSEMANE, PILATE, CALVARY, JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA. In studying the separate Gospels, let the reader follow the order suggested in the articles GOSPEL and JESUS CHRIST. First he should study the article MARK, GOSPEL OF, by Dr. Stanton; the article on ST. MARK, by Dr. James Vernon Bartlett, professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford, and, for a summary of the points in the Marcan or Galilean narrative as contrasted with the Jerusalem narrative in regard to the betrayal of Jesus and the period immediately following, the article on ST. PETER by Dr. Kirsopp Lake. MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST., by Dr. Vincent H. Stanton, and MATTHEW, by Dr. J. V. Bartlett; with particular attention to the paragraph on additions to Mark’s narrative in Vol. 15, p. 355, and to the stress on the Messianic character, the mention of the church and of St. Peter as the Rock in chapter 16. LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST., by Dr. Stanton, and the biographical sketch of LUKE, by Dr. Bartlett; and the paragraph on Luke’s additions to Mark’s narrative in Vol. 15, p. 356. This is the universal gospel, just as Mark’s was for extra-Palestinian use and Matthew’s particularly for the Jew, as is shown by the incidents of Zaccheus and of the Samaritan leper; and Renan’s characterization of the gospel of the one evangelist who was not a Jew, “the most beautiful book in the world,” is quoted twice in the Britannica. JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST., and JOHN (the Apostle), both by Baron Friedrich von Hügel, author of _The Mystical Element of Religion_: the paragraph on the distinctive elements of John’s gospel (in Vol. 15, p. 357), such as the story of John the Baptist (see the article on this “forerunner,” by G. H. Box, late lecturer in theology, Oxford); the philosophical