A Short History of Freethought Ancient and Modern, Volume 2 of 2 by J. M. Robertson

15. The Scandinavian States 457

Section 4.--The Natural Sciences

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Chapter 1 Ch.1
1. Influence of Montaigne and Charron. Gui Patin. Naudé. La Ch.2
4. Vogue of freethinking. Malherbe. Joan Fontanier. Théophile Ch.3
15. Developments in France. The polemic of Abbadie. Persecution Ch.4
16. St. Evremond. Regnard. La Bruyère. Spread of Ch.5
1. Boulainvilliers. Strifes in the Church. Fénelon and Ramsay. Ch.6
11. Progress of tolerance. Marie Huber. Resistance of bigotry. Ch.7
13. New politics. The less famous freethinkers: Burigny; Ch.8
14. N.-A. Boulanger. Dumarsais. Prémontval. Solidity of much Ch.9
18. Freethought in the Académie. Beginnings in classical Ch.10
22. Study of Nature. Fontenelle. Lenglet du Fresnoy. De Ch.11
27. The conventional myth and the facts. Necker. Abbé Grégoire. Ch.12
28. Religious and political forces of revolt. The polemic Ch.13
30. The polemic of Mallet du Pan. Saner views of Barante. Ch.14
33. Napoleon 292 Ch.15
1. Moral Decline under Lutheranism. Freethought before the Ch.16
12. English and French influences. The scientific movement. Ch.17
14. Mauvillon. Nicolai. Riem. Schade. Basedow. Eberhard. Ch.18
18. Vogue of deism. Wieland. Cases of Isenbiehl and Steinbuhler. Ch.19
22. Influence of Kant. The sequel. Hamann. Chr. A. Crusius. Ch.20
25. Austria. Jahn. Joseph II. Beethoven 351 Ch.21
1. Course of the Reformation. Subsequent wars. Ch.22
5. Upper-class indifference. Gustavus III. Kjellgren and Ch.23
6. Revival of thought in Denmark. Struensee. Mary Ch.24
2. Russia. Nikon. Peter the Great. Kantemir. Catherine 363 Ch.25
3. Subsequent scientific thought. General revival of Ch.26
4. Beccaria. Algarotti. Filangieri. Galiani. Genovesi. Ch.27
9. Portugal. Pombal 377 Ch.28
6. Palmer. Houston. Deism and Unitarianism 385 Ch.29
3. Pietist persecution. Richard Carlile. John Clarke. Ch.30
7. Charles Bradlaugh and Secularism. Imprisonment of Ch.31
8. New literary developments. Lecky. Conway. Winwood Ch.32
9. Freethought in France. Social schemes. Fourier. Ch.33
10. Bigotry in Spain. Popular freethought in Catholic Ch.34
11. Fluctuations in Germany. Persistence of religious Ch.35
15. Clerical rationalism in Protestant countries. Ch.36
17. The United States. Ingersoll. Lincoln. Stephen Ch.37
1. Rationalism in Germany. The Schleiermacher reaction: Ch.38
7. Strauss's second Life of Jesus. His politics. His Ch.39
8. Fluctuating progress of criticism. Important issues Ch.40
10. Falling-off in German candidates for the ministry as in Ch.41
11. Attack and defence in England. The Tractarian reaction. Ch.42
12. New Testament criticism in France. Renan and Havet 439 Ch.43
3. Béranger. De Musset. Victor Hugo. Leconte de Lisle. The Ch.44
4. Poetry in England. Shelley. Coleridge. The romantic Ch.45
7. Orthodoxy and conformity. Bain's view of Carlyle, Ch.46
8. The literary influence. Ruskin. Arnold. Intellectual Ch.47
9. English fiction from Miss Edgeworth to the present Ch.48
15. The Scandinavian States 457 Ch.49
1. Progress in cosmology. Laplace and modern astronomy. Ch.50
8. Triumph of evolutionism. Spencer. Clifford. Huxley 466 Ch.51
1. Eighteenth-century sociology. Salverte. Charles Ch.52
2. Progress in England. Orthodoxy of Hallam. Carlyle. Ch.53
4. Mythology and anthropology. Tylor. Spencer. Avebury. Ch.54
9. Philosophy in Britain. Bentham. James Mill. Grote. Ch.55
12. J. S. Mill 489 Ch.56
CHAPTER XIII Ch.57
1638. Kepler's indecisive Mysterium Cosmographicum appeared only in Ch.58
1. The Latin letter of Gaspar Schopp (Scioppius), dated February Ch.59
2. There are preserved two extracts from Roman news-letters Ch.60
3. There has been found, by a Catholic investigator, a double entry Ch.61
episode is well vouched; and the argument from the silence of Ch.62
1649. As M. Desdouits staked his case on the absence of allusion to Ch.63
CHAPTER XIV Ch.64
1662. [376] Under the Commonwealth (1656) James Naylor, the Quaker, Ch.65
1683. Dr. Rust, Discourse on the Use of Reason in ... Religion, Ch.66
1685. Duke of Buckingham, A Short Discourse upon the Reasonableness Ch.67
1691. John Ray, Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Ch.68
1695. John Edwards, B.D., Some Thoughts concerning the Several Causes Ch.69
1696. Sir C. Wolseley, The Unreasonableness of Atheism Demonstrated. Ch.70
1696. Dr. Nichols' Conference with a Theist. Pt. I. (Answer to Ch.71
1696. J. Edwards, D.D., A Demonstration of the Evidence and Ch.72
1696. E. Pelling, Discourse ... on the Existence of God. (Pt. II in Ch.73
1697. Stephen Eye, A Discourse concerning Natural and Revealed Ch.74
1697. Bishop Gastrell, The Certainty and Necessity of Religion. Ch.75
1698. Dr. J. Harris, A Refutation of Atheistical Objections. (Boyle Ch.76
1698. Thos. Emes, The Atheist turned Deist, and the Deist turned Ch.77
1699. J. Bradley, An Impartial View of the Truth of Christianity. Ch.78
1700. Bishop Bradford, The Credibility of the Christian Revelation. Ch.79
1702. Dr. Stanhope, The Truth and Excellency of the Christian Ch.80
1705. Ed. Pelling, Discourse concerning the existence of God. Part Ch.81
1705. Dr. Samuel Clarke, A Demonstration of the Being and Attributes Ch.82
1706. Th. Wise, B.D., A Confutation of the Reason and Philosophy of Ch.83
1706. T. Oldfield, Mille Testes; against the Atheists, Deists, and Ch.84
1707. Dr. J. Hancock, Arguments to prove the Being of a God. (Boyle Ch.85
CHAPTER XV Ch.86
1. We have seen France, in the first quarter of the seventeenth Ch.87
2. On the other hand, the resort on the part of the Catholics to a Ch.88
3. Between the negative development of the doctrine of Montaigne and Ch.89
4. The general tendency is revealed on the one hand by the series Ch.90
5. Equally freethinking was his brilliant predecessor and early Ch.91
6. Even in the apologetic reasoning of the greatest French prose Ch.92
7. A similar fatality attended the labours of the learned Huet, Bishop Ch.93
8. Meanwhile the philosophy of Descartes, if less strictly propitious Ch.94
9. Yet another philosophic figure of the reign of Louis XIV, the Jesuit Ch.95
10. Yet another new departure was made in the France of Louis XIV Ch.96
11. Such an evolution could not occur in France without affecting the Ch.97
12. As Meyer was one of the most intimate friends of Spinoza, being Ch.98
13. The appearance in 1678 of a Dutch treatise "against all sorts of Ch.99
14. No greater service was rendered in that age to the spread of Ch.100
15. Meantime, Spinoza had reinforced the critical movement in France, Ch.101
16. Of the new Epicureans, the most famous in his day was Ch.102
CHAPTER XVI Ch.103
405. It is noteworthy that a volume of controversial sermons Ch.104
1752. The Pillars of Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken. Four vols. Ch.105
1765. W. Dudgeon, Philosophical Works (reprints of those of 1732, Ch.106
1772. E. Evanson, The Doctrines of a Trinity and the Ch.107
1773. ---- Three Discourses (1. Upon the Man after God's own Ch.108
1781. W. Nicholson, The Doubts of the Infidels. (Rep. by R. Ch.109
1782. W. Turner, Answer to Dr. Priestley's Letters to a Ch.110
1785. Dr. G. Hoggart Toulmin, The Antiquity and Duration of the Ch.111
1792. E. Evanson, The Dissonance of the Four Evangelists. Ch.112
1795. Dr. J. A. O'Keefe, On the Progress of the Human Ch.113
1797. John C. Davies, The Scripturian's Creed. Prosecuted and Ch.114
1797. The latter writer states (2nd ed. p. 126) that "infidelity is Ch.115
CHAPTER XVII Ch.116
1. The fruits of the intellectual movement of the seventeenth Ch.117
2. At the same time the continuous output of apologetics testified Ch.118
3. There was thus no adaptation on the side of the Church to the forces Ch.119
4. As the new intellectual movement began to find expression, then, it Ch.120
5. A continuous development may be traced throughout the Ch.121
6. One of the most comprehensive freethinking works of the century, the Ch.122
7. Apart from this direct influence, too, others of the cloth bore Ch.123
8. With the ground prepared as we have seen, freethought was bound Ch.124
9. It is thus a complete mistake on the part of Buckle to affirm Ch.125
10. The rest of Voltaire's long life was a sleepless and dexterous Ch.126
11. It is difficult to realize how far the mere demand for Ch.127
12. A new era of propaganda and struggle had visibly begun. In Ch.128
1700. Lettre d'Hypocrate à Damagète, attributed to the Comte de Ch.129
1700. [Claude Gilbert.] Histoire de Calejava, ou de l'isle des hommes Ch.130
1704. [Gueudeville.] Dialogues de M. le Baron de la Houtan et d'un Ch.131
1709. Lettre sur l'enthousiasme (Fr. tr. of Shaftesbury, by Samson). Ch.132
1710. [Tyssot de Patot, Symon.] Voyages et Avantures de Jaques Massé. Ch.133
1710. Essai sur l'usage de la raillerie (Fr. tr. of Shaftesbury, by Ch.134
1712. [Deslandes, A. F. B.] Reflexions sur les grands hommes qui sont Ch.135
1714. Discours sur la liberté de penser [French tr. of Collins's Ch.136
1720. Same work rep. under the double title: De tribus impostoribus: Ch.137
1724. [Lévesque de Burigny.] Histoire de la philosophie payenne. La Ch.138
1730. [Bernard, J.-F.] Dialogues critiques et philosophiques. "Par Ch.139
1731. Réfutation des erreurs de Benoît de Spinoza, par Fénelon, le P. Ch.140
1734. [Voltaire.] Lettres philosophiques. 4 edd. within the year. Ch.141
1734. [Longue, Louis-Pierre de.] Les Princesses Malabares, ou le Ch.142
1737. Marquis D'Argens. La Philosophie du Bon Sens. (Berlin: 8th Ch.143
1738. [Marie Huber.] Lettres sur la religion essentielle à l'homme, Ch.144
1739. ----, Suite to the foregoing, "servant de réponse aux Ch.145
1741. [Deslandes.] Pigmalion, ou la Statue animée. [Condemned to be Ch.146
1741. ----, De la Certitude des connaissances humaines ... traduit de Ch.147
1743. Nouvelles libertés de penser. Amsterdam. [Edited by Dumarsais. Ch.148
1745. [Lieut. De la Serre.] La vraie religion traduite de l'Ecriture Ch.149
1745. [La Mettrie.] Histoire naturelle de l'âme. [Condemned to be Ch.150
1748. [P. Estève.] L'Origine de l'Univers expliquée par un principe Ch.151
1748. [Benoît de Maillet.] Telliamed, ou Entretiens d'un philosophe Ch.152
1751. [Mirabaud, J. B. de.] Le Monde, son origine et son antiquité. Ch.153
1752. [Gouvest, J. H. Maubert de.] Lettres Iroquoises. "Irocopolis, Ch.154
1752. [Génard, F.] L'École de l'homme, ou Parallèle des Portraits du Ch.155
1753. [Baume-Desdossat, Canon of Avignon.] La Christiade. [Book Ch.156
1753. Astruc, Jean. Conjectures sur les mémoires originaux dont il Ch.157
1754. Prémontval, A. I. le Guay de. Le Diogène de d'Alembert, ou Ch.158
1754. Burigny, J. L. Théologie payenne. 2 tom. (New ed. of his Ch.159
1754. Beausobre, L. de (the younger). Pyrrhonisme du Sage. Berlin. Ch.160
1755. Recherches philosophiques sur la liberté de l'homme. Trans. of Ch.161
1755. Analyse raisonnée de Bayle. 4 tom. [By the Abbé de Marsy. Ch.162
1755. [Deleyre.] Analyse de la philosophie de Bacon. (Largely an Ch.163
1757. Prémontval. Vues Philosophiques. (Amsterdam.) Ch.164
1759. Translation of Hume's Natural History of Religion and Ch.165
1761. [N.-A. Boulanger. [1020]] Recherches sur l'origine du Ch.166
1761. Rep. of De la Serre's La vraie religion as Examen de la Ch.167
1761. [D'Holbach.] Le Christianisme dévoilé. [Imprint: "Londres, Ch.168
1762. Rousseau. Émile. [Publicly burned at Paris and at Geneva. Ch.169
1762. Robinet, J. B. De la nature. Vol. i. (Vol. ii in 1764; iii and Ch.170
1764. [Voltaire.] Dictionnaire philosophique portatif. [1021] [First Ch.171
1764. Lettres secrètes de M. de Voltaire. [Holland. Collection of Ch.172
1764. L'Évangile de la Raison. Ouvrage posthume de M. D. M----y. [Ed. Ch.173
1765. Recueil Nécessaire, avec L'Évangile de la Raison, 2 tom. Ch.174
1766. Boulanger, N. A. L'Antiquité dévoilée. [1023] 3 tom. [Recast by Ch.175
1766. Voyage de Robertson aux terres australes. Traduit sur le Ch.176
1766. De Prades. Abrégé de l'histoire ecclésiastique de Fleury. Ch.177
1766. [Burigny.] Examen critique des Apologistes de la religion Ch.178
1766. [Abbé Millot.] Histoire philosophique de l'homme. [Naturalistic Ch.179
1767. Doutes sur la religion (attributed to Gueroult de Pival), suivi Ch.180
1767. Lettre de Thrasybule à Leucippe. [Published under the name of Ch.181
1767. [D'Holbach.] L'Imposture sacerdotale, ou Recueil de pièces sur Ch.182
1767. Reprint of Le Christianisme dévoilé. [Condemned to be burnt, Ch.183
1768. Meister, J. H. De l'origine des principes religieux. Ch.184
1768. Catalogue raisonné des esprits forts, depuis le curé Ch.185
1768. [D'Holbach.] La Contagion sacrée, ou histoire naturelle de Ch.186
1768. ---- Lettres philosophiques sur l'origine des préjugés, Ch.187
1768. ---- Lettres à Eugénie, ou preservatif contre les Ch.188
1768. ---- Théologie Portative. "Par l'abbé Bernier." [Also Ch.189
1768. Traité des trois Imposteurs. (See 1719 and 1720.) Rep. Ch.190
1768. Naigeon, J. A. Le militaire philosophe. [Adaptation of a Ch.191
1768. Examen des prophéties qui servent de fondement à la Ch.192
1768. Robinet. Considérations philosophiques. Ch.193
1769. [Diderot. Also ascribed to Castillon.] Histoire générale Ch.194
1769. [Mirabaud.] Opinions des anciens sur les juifs, and Ch.195
1769. [Isoard-Delisle, otherwise Delisle de Sales.] De la Ch.196
1769. [Seguier de Saint-Brisson.] Traité des Droits de Génie, Ch.197
1770. ---- Examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de Saint Ch.198
1770. ---- Essai sur les Préjugés. (Not by Dumarsais, whose name Ch.199
1770. Recueil Philosophique. 2 tom. [Edited by Naigeon. Contains Ch.200
1770. Analyse de Bayle. Rep. of the four vols. of De Marsy, with Ch.201
1770. Raynal (with Diderot and others). Histoire philosophique Ch.202
1772. Le Bon Sens. [Adaptation from Meslier by Diderot and Ch.203
1773. Helvétius. De l'Homme. Ouvrage posthume. 2 tom. [Condemned to Ch.204
1774. Abauzit, F. Réflexions impartiales sur les Évangiles, suivies Ch.205
1774. New edition of Theologie Portative. 2 tom. [Condemned to be Ch.206
1775. [Voltaire.] Histoire de Jenni, ou Le Sage et l'Athée. [Attack Ch.207
1777. Examen critique du Nouveau Testament, "par M. Fréret." [Not Ch.208
1779. Vie d'Apollonius de Tyane par Philostrate, avec les Ch.209
1780. Clootz, Anacharsis. La Certitude des preuves du Mahométisme. Ch.210
1780. Second ed. of Raynal's Histoire philosophique, with Ch.211
1784. Pougens, M. C. J. de. Récréations de philosophie et de Ch.212
1788. Pastoret. Moïse considéré comme legislateur et comme Ch.213
1788. Maréchal. Almanach des honnêtes gens. [Author imprisoned; Ch.214
1789. Cerutti (Jesuit Father). Bréviaire Philosophique, ou Histoire Ch.215
1795. La Fable de Christ dévoilée; ou Lettre du muphti de Ch.216
1798. Maréchal. Pensées libres sur les prêtres. A Rome, et se Ch.217
13. It will be noted that after 1770--coincidently, indeed, with a Ch.218
14. One of the most remarkable of the company in some respects is Ch.219
15. Though the bibliographers claim to have traced the authorship in Ch.220
16. Above the scattered band of minor combatants rises a group of Ch.221
17. An interlude in the critical campaign, little noticed at the time, Ch.222
18. In the select Parisian arena of the Académie, the intellectual Ch.223
19. In 1759 there came a check. The Encyclopédie, which had been Ch.224
20. Voltaire could not compass, as he for a time schemed, the election Ch.225
21. Alongside of the more strictly literary or humanist movement, Ch.226
22. A more general influence, naturally, attached to the Ch.227
23. But science, like theology, had its schisms, and the rationalizing Ch.228
24. Over all of these men, and even in some measure over Voltaire, Ch.229
25. With Diderot were specially associated, in different ways, Ch.230
26. The death of d'Holbach (1789) brings us to the French Ch.231
27. No part of the history of freethought has been more distorted Ch.232
28. The anti-atheistic and anti-philosophic legend was born of the Ch.233
29. If any careful attempt be made to analyse the situation, the Ch.234
30. A survey of the work and attitude of the leading French Ch.235
31. While the true causation of the Revolution is thus kept clear, Ch.236
32. Among many other illustrations of the passion for persecution in Ch.237
33. This section would not be complete even in outline without some Ch.238
CHAPTER XVIII Ch.239
1. When two generations of Protestant strife had turned to naught the Ch.240
2. While, however, clerical action could drive such a movement under Ch.241
1662. Th. Gegenbauer. Preservatio wider die Pest der heutigen Ch.242
1668. J. Musæus. Examen Cherburianismi. Contra E. Herbertum de Ch.243
1668. Anton Reiser. De origine, progressu, et incremento Antitheismi Ch.244
1677. Val. Greissing. Corona Transylvani; Exerc. 2, de Atheismo, Ch.245
1689. Th. Undereyck. Der Närrische Atheist in seiner Thorheit Ch.246
1697. A. H. Grosse. An Atheismus necessario ducat ad corruptionem Ch.247
1708. Loescher. Prænotiones Theologicæ contra Naturalistarum et Ch.248
1708. Rechenberg. Fundamenta veræ religionis Prudentum, adversus Ch.249
1710. J. C. Wolfius. Dissertatio de Atheismi falso suspectis. Ch.250
1713. Anon. Widerlegung der Atheisten, Deisten, und neuen Zweifeler. Ch.251
3. For a community in which the reading class was mainly clerical and Ch.252
4. Other culture-conditions concurred to set up a spirit of rationalism Ch.253
5. After the collapse of the popular movement of Matthias Knutzen, Ch.254
6. A personality of a very different kind emerges in the same period Ch.255
7. Among the pupils of Thomasius at Halle was Theodore Louis Lau, Ch.256
8. While Thomasius was still at work, a new force arose of a more Ch.257
9. Even before the generation of active pressure from English and Ch.258
10. To the same period belong the first activities of Johann Christian Ch.259
11. Even from decorous and official exponents of religion, however, Ch.260
12. Alongside of home-made heresy there had come into play a new Ch.261
13. Frederick, though reputed a Voltairean freethinker par excellence, Ch.262
14. The social vogue of deistic thought could now be traced in much of Ch.263
15. If it be true that even the rationalizing defenders of Christianity Ch.264
16. Much more notorious than any other German deist of his time was Ch.265
17. Alongside of these propagators of popular rationalism stood Ch.266
18. Deism was now as prevalent in educated Germany as in France or Ch.267
19. Meanwhile, the drift of the age of Aufklärung was apparent in Ch.268
20. No less certain is the unbelief of Schiller (1759-1805), whom Ch.269
21. The critical philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) may be said Ch.270
22. The total performance of Kant thus left Germany with a powerful Ch.271
23. Some philosophic opposition there was to Kant, alike on Ch.272
24. It is true that the progressive work was not all done by the Ch.273
25. The emancipation, too, was limited in area in the German-speaking Ch.274
CHAPTER XIX Ch.275
1. Traces of new rationalistic life are to be seen in the Scandinavian Ch.276
2. For long, the only personality making powerfully for culture was Ch.277
3. In Sweden, meantime, there had occurred some reflex of the Ch.278
4. That there was, however, in eighteenth-century Sweden a considerable Ch.279
5. According to one of Swedenborg's biographers, the worldliness of Ch.280
6. In Denmark, on the other hand, the stagnation of nearly a hundred Ch.281
1. In Poland, where, as we saw, Unitarian heresy had spread Ch.282
2. In Russia the possibilities of modern freethought emerge only in Ch.283
1. Returning to Italy, no longer the leader of European thought, but Ch.284
2. First came the great work of Vico, the Principles of a New Science Ch.285
3. It is noteworthy, indeed, that the "New Science," as Vico boasted, Ch.286
1763. Thenceforth for many years there raged, "under the eyes of Pope Ch.287
4. Between 1737 and 1798 may be counted twenty-eight Italian writers Ch.288
1. For the rest of Europe during the eighteenth century, we have Ch.289
2. Still all freethinking in Spain ran immense risks, even under Ch.290
3. Another grandee, Don Christophe Ximenez de Gongora, Duke of Ch.291
4. In another case, a freethinking priest skilfully anticipated Ch.292
5. Out of a long series of other men of letters persecuted by the Ch.293
6. Another savant of the same period, Don Joseph de Clavijo y Faxardo, Ch.294
7. Still in the same reign, the Jesuit Francisco de Ista, author of an Ch.295
8. It is plain that the combined power of the Church, the orders, Ch.296
9. Portugal in the same period, despite the anti-clerical policy Ch.297
CHAPTER XX Ch.298
1. Perhaps the most signal of all the proofs of the change wrought Ch.299
2. The rise of rationalism in the colonies must be traced in the main Ch.300
3. Similarly prudent was Jefferson, who, like Franklin and Paine, Ch.301
4. Nothing in American culture-history more clearly proves the last Ch.302
5. Its immediate effect was much greater in Britain, where his Rights Ch.303
6. The habit of reticence or dissimulation among American public men Ch.304
CHAPTER XXI Ch.305
1. In Great Britain and America, the new movements of popular Ch.306
2. In France and elsewhere, the reverberation of the attack Ch.307
3. German "rationalism," proceeding from English deism, moving Ch.308
4. The literary compromise of Lessing, claiming for all religions Ch.309
5. In England, the neo-Christianity of the school of Coleridge, Ch.310
6. The utilitarianism of the school of Bentham, carried into Ch.311
7. Comtism, making little direct impression on the "constructive" Ch.312
8. German philosophy, Kantian and post-Kantian, in particular Ch.313
9. German atheism and scientific "materialism"--represented Ch.314
10. Revived English deism, involving destructive criticism Ch.315
12. Colenso's preliminary attack on the narrative of the Ch.316
13. The later or scientific "higher criticism" of the Old Ch.317
14. New historical criticism of Christian origins, in particular Ch.318
15. Exhibition of rationalism within the churches, as in Germany, Ch.319
16. Association of rationalistic doctrine with the Socialist Ch.320
17. Communication of doubt and moral questioning through poetry and Ch.321
4. The comprehension of all science in the Evolution Theory, Ch.322
7. Sociology, as outlined by Comte, Buckle, Spencer, Winwood Reade, Ch.323
8. Comparative Hierology; the methodical application of principles Ch.324
9. Above all, the later development of Anthropology (in the wide Ch.325
1. Penal laws, still operative in Britain and Germany against Ch.326
2. Class interests, involving in the first half of the century Ch.327
3. Commercial pressure thus set up, and always involved in the Ch.328
4. In England, identification of orthodox Dissent with political Ch.329
5. Concessions by the clergy, especially in England and the United Ch.330
6. Above all, the production of new masses of popular ignorance Ch.331
7. On this basis, business-like and in large part secular-minded Ch.332
1. If any one circumstance more than another differentiates the life Ch.333
2. Meantime, new writers arose to carry into fuller detail the attacks Ch.334
3. As the years went on, the persecution in England grew still fiercer; Ch.335
4. In this evolution political activities played an important Ch.336
5. Holyoake had been a missionary and martyr in the movement Ch.337
6. This date broadly coincides with the maximum domination of Ch.338
7. In 1858 there was elected to the presidency of the London Secular Ch.339
8. The special energy of the English secularist movement in the ninth Ch.340
9. In the first half of the century popular forms of freethought Ch.341
10. In other Catholic countries the course of popular culture in Ch.342
11. In Germany, as we have seen, the relative selectness of culture, Ch.343
12. Under the widely-different political conditions in Russia and Ch.344
13. "Free-religious" societies, such as have been noted in Germany, Ch.345
14. Alongside of the lines of movement before sketched, there has Ch.346
15. A partly similar evolution has taken place among the Protestant Ch.347
16. The history of popular freethought in Sweden yields a good Ch.348
17. Only in the United States has the public lecture platform been Ch.349
1. At the beginning of the century, educated men in general Ch.350
2. Gradually that had developed a greater precision of method, Ch.351
3. No less remarkable was the check to the few attempts which had Ch.352
4. But as regards the gospel history in general, the first Leben Ch.353
5. For a time there was undoubtedly "reaction," engineered with the Ch.354
6. Another expert of Baur's school, Albrecht Schwegler, author of Ch.355
7. In 1864, after an abstention of twenty years from discussion of Ch.356
1870. In what is now recognized as the national manner, he wrote two Ch.357
8. And it was long before even Strauss's early method of scientific Ch.358
9. In New Testament criticism, though the strict critical method of Ch.359
10. The movement of Biblical and other criticism in Germany has had Ch.360
11. On a less extensive scale than in Germany, critical study of the Ch.361
12. In France systematic criticism of the sacred books recommenced Ch.362
1. The whole imaginative literature of Europe, in the generation Ch.363
2. The literary history of France since his death decides the question, Ch.364
3. In French poetry the case is hardly otherwise. Béranger, who Ch.365
4. In England it was due above all to Shelley that the very age of Ch.366
5. One of the best-beloved names in English literature, Charles Lamb, Ch.367
6. While a semi-Bohemian like Lamb could thus dare to challenge the Ch.368
7. This attitude of orthodoxy, threatening ostracism to any avowed Ch.369
8. Thus for a whole generation honest and narrow-minded believers were Ch.370
9. In English fiction, the beginning of the end of genuine faith Ch.371
10. Among the most artistically gifted of the English story-writers and Ch.372
11. Though Shelley was anathema to English Christians in his own Ch.373
12. Of the imaginative literature of the United States, as of that of Ch.374
13. Of the vast modern output of belles lettres in continental Europe, Ch.375
1850. "If I could only go out on crutches!" he exclaimed; adding: Ch.376
14. But perhaps the most considerable evidence, in belles lettres, Ch.377
15. In the Scandinavian States, again, there are hardly any Ch.378
1. The power of intellectual habit and tradition had preserved Ch.379
2. From France came likewise the impulse to a naturalistic handling Ch.380
3. In England the influence of the French stimulus in physiology Ch.381
4. A more general effect, however, was probably wrought by the science Ch.382
5. Still more rousing, finally, was the effect of the science of Ch.383
6. Other anticipations of Darwin's doctrine in England and elsewhere Ch.384
7. "Contempt and abhorrence" had in fact at all times constituted Ch.385
8. Thus the idea of a specific creation of all forms of life by an Ch.386
1. A rationalistic treatment of human history had been explicit or Ch.387
2. In England the anti-revolution reaction was visible in this as Ch.388
3. All study of economics and of political history fostered such Ch.389
4. Two lines of scientific study, it would appear, must be thoroughly Ch.390
1. The philosophy of Kant, while giving the theological class a new Ch.391
2. In respect of his formal championship of Christianity Hegel's Ch.392
3. From the collisions of philosophic systems in Germany there Ch.393
4. Arnold Ruge (1802-1880), who was of the same philosophical school, Ch.394
5. On Feuerbach's Essence of Religion followed the resounding explosion Ch.395
6. In France the course of thought had been hardly less Ch.396
7. On retrospect, the whole official French philosophy of the period, Ch.397
8. The most energetic and characteristic philosophy produced in the new Ch.398
9. In Britain, where abstract philosophy after Berkeley had been mainly Ch.399
10. When English metaphysical philosophy revived with Sir William Ch.400
11. The effect of the ethical pressure of the deistic attack on Ch.401
12. A powerful and wholesome stimulus was given to English thought Ch.402
1598. Chapman spells the name Harriots. Ch.403
1587. Reprinted in 1592, 1604, and 1617. Ch.404
128. Cp. Bayle, art. Vorstius, Note N. By his theological opponents and Ch.405
1573. Ritter, Geschichte der deutschen Union, i, 19. Cp. Menzel, Ch.406
1646. (Gangræna, p. 151.) The Hanserd Knollys collection, above Ch.407
1614. Epist. Ded. Ch.408
1705. (Pref. to pt. i, ed. 1725.) Ch.409
1876. See citations in Land's note to his lecture in Spinoza: Four Ch.410
1663. From the withholding of court favour it proceeded to subsidies Ch.411
169. Most of the Guardian papers cited are by Berkeley. They are Ch.412
1903. pp. 36-37. Ch.413
1750. Forbes in his youth had been famed as one of the hardest drinkers Ch.414
Introduction to the History of the Jews; a Vindication of Biblical Ch.415
1764. It was no fewer than four times ordered to be destroyed in the Ch.416
19. Jahrhunderts, 2te Aufl. 1848, i, 218-20. Ch.417
1768. Tn the latter entry, Yvon is described as "poursuivi comme Ch.418
193. Mrs. Dunlop, the friend of Burns, recommending its perusal to Ch.419
1841. Many of the utterances here set forth are irreconcilable with Ch.420
282. The Concordat was bitterly resented by the freethinkers in the Ch.421
1686. Other German and French periodicals soon followed that of Ch.422
24. "Before Thomasius," writes Bielfeld, "an old woman could not have Ch.423
1785. The Letters purport to be written by one of the Moroccan embassy Ch.424
1684. After a youth of poverty and struggle he settled at Copenhagen in Ch.425
139. Cp. Rambaud, Hist. de Russie, 2e édit. pp. 249, 259, Ch.426
32. Ripley, who was one of the American transcendentalist group and Ch.427