Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Armour Plates" to "Arundel, Earls of"

His eldest son, Emilien Lucien (1787-1863), wrote several tragedies, the leading roles in which were interpreted by Talma. See Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. 7. Arnault's _Oeuvres completes_ (4 vols.) were published at the Hague and Paris in 1818-1819 and again (8 vols.) at Paris in 1824. ARNDT, ERNST MORITZ (1769-1860), German poet and patriot, was born on the 26th of December 1769 at Schoritz in the island of Rugen, which at that time belonged to Sweden. He was the son of a prosperous farmer, and emancipated serf of the lord of the district, Count Putbus; his mother came of well-to-do German yeoman stock. In 1787 the family removed into the neighbourhood of Stralsund, where Arndt was enabled to attend the academy. After an interval of private study he went in 1791 to the university of Greifswald as a student of theology and history, and in 1793 removed to Jena, where he fell under the influence of Fichte. On the completion of his university course he returned home, was for two years a private tutor in the family of Ludwig Kosegarten (1758-1818), pastor of Wittow and poet, and having qualified for the ministry as a "candidate of theology," assisted in the church services. At the age of twenty-eight he renounced the ministry, and for eighteen months he led a wandering life, visiting Austria, Hungary, Italy, France and Belgium. Returning homewards up the Rhine, he was moved by the sight of the ruined castles along its banks to intense bitterness against France. The impressions of this journey he later described in _Reisen durch einen Theil Teutschlands, Ungarns, Italiens und Frankreichs in den Jahren 1798 und 1799_ (1802-1804). In 1800 he settled in Greifswald as _privat-docent_ in history, and the same year published _Uber die Freiheit der alien Republiken_. In 1803 appeared _Germanien und Europa_," a fragmentary ebullition," as be himself called it, of his views on the French aggression. This was followed by one of the most remarkable of his books, _Versuch einer Geschichte der Leibeigenschaft in Pommern und Rugen_ (Berlin, 1803), a history of serfdom in Pomerania and Rugen, which was so convincing an indictment that King Gustavus Adolphus IV. in 1806 abolished the evil. Arndt had meanwhile risen from _privat-docent_ to extraordinary professor, and in 1806 was appointed to the chair of history at the university. In this year he published the first part of his _Geist der Zeit_, in which he flung down the gauntlet to Napoleon and called on his countrymen to rise and shake off the French yoke. So great was the excitement it produced that Arndt was compelled to take refuge in Sweden to escape the vengeance of Napoleon. Settling in Stockholm, he obtained government employment, but devoted himself to the great cause which was nearest his heart, and in pamphlets, poems and songs communicated his enthusiasm to his countrymen. Schill's heroic death at Stralsund impelled him to return to Germany and, under the disguise of "Almann, teacher of languages," he reached Berlin in December 1809. In 1810 he returned to Greifswald, but only for a few months. He again set out on his adventurous travels, lived in close contact with the first men of his time, such as Blucher, Gneisenau and Stein, and in 1812 was summoned by the last named to St Petersburg to assist in the organization of the final struggle against France. Meanwhile, pamphlet after pamphlet, full of bitter hatred of the French oppressor, came from his pen, and his stirring patriotic songs, such as _Was ist das deutsche Vaterland? Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess_, and _Was blasen die Trompeten?_ were on all lips. When, after the peace, the university of Bonn was founded in 1818, Arndt was appointed to the chair of modern history. In this year appeared the fourth part of his _Geist der Zeit_, in which he criticized the reactionary policy of the German powers. The boldness of his demands for reform offended the Prussian government, and in the summer of 1819 he was arrested and his papers confiscated. Although speedily liberated, he was in the following year, at the instance of the Central Commission of Investigation at Mainz, established in accordance with the Carlsbad Decrees, arraigned before a specially constituted tribunal. Although not found guilty, he was forbidden to exercise the functions of his professorship, but was allowed to retain the stipend. The next twenty years he passed in retirement and literary activity. In 1840 he was reinstated in his professorship, and in 1841 was chosen rector of the university. The revolutionary outbreak of 1848 rekindled in the venerable patriot his old hopes and energies, and he took his seat as one of the deputies to the National Assembly at Frankfort. He formed one of the deputation that offered the imperial crown to Frederick William IV., and indignant at the king's refusal to accept it, he retired with the majority of von Gagern's adherents from public life. He continued to lecture and to write with freshness and vigour, and on his 90th birthday received from all parts of Germany good wishes and tokens of affection. He died at Bonn on the 29th of January 1860. Arndt was twice married, first in 1800, his wife dying in the following year; a second time in 1817. Arndt's untiring labour for his country rightly won for him the title of "the most German of all Germans." His lyric poems are not, however, all confined to politics. Many among the Gedichte (1803-1818; complete edition, 1860) are religious pieces of great beauty. Among his other works are _Reise durch Schweden_ (1797); _Nebenstunden, eine Beschreibung und Geschichte der schottlandischen Inseln und der Orkaden_ (1820); _Die Frage uber die Niederlande_ (1831); _Erinnerungen aus dem ausseren Leben_ (an autobiography, and the most valuable source of information for Arndt's life, 1840); _Rhein- und Ahrwanderungen_ (1846), _Wanderungen und Wandlungen mit dem Reichsfreiherrn von Stein_ (1858), and _Pro populo Germanico_ (1854), which was originally intended to form the fifth part of the _Geist der Zeit_. Arndt's _Werke_ have been edited by H. Rosch and H. Meisner in 8 vols. (not complete) (1892-1898). Biographies have been written by E. Langenberg (1869) and Wilhelm Baur (5th ed., 1882); see also H. Meisner and R. Geerds, _E.M. Arndt, ein Lebensbild in Briefen_ (1898), and R. Thiele, _E.M. Arndt_ (1894). There are monuments to his memory at Schoritz, his birthplace, and at Bonn, where he is buried. ARNDT, JOHANN (1555-1621), German Lutheran theologian, was born at Ballenstedt, in Anhalt, and studied in several universities. He was at Helmstadt in 1576; at Wittenberg in 1577. At Wittenberg the crypto-Calvinist controversy was then at its height, and he took the side of Melanchthon and the crypto-Calvinists. He continued his studies in Strassburg, under the professor of Hebrew, Johannes Pappus (1549-1610), a zealous Lutheran, the crown of whose life's work was the forcible suppression of Calvinistic preaching and worship in the city, and who had great influence over him. In Basel, again, he studied theology under Simon Sulzer (1508-1585), a broad-minded divine of Lutheran sympathies, whose aim was to reconcile the churches of the Helvetic and Wittenberg confessions. In 1581 he went back to Ballenstedt, but was soon recalled to active life by his appointment to the pastorate at Badeborn in 1583. After some time his Lutheran tendencies exposed him to the anger of the authorities, who were of the Reformed Church. Consequently, in 1590 he was deposed for refusing to remove the pictures from his church and discontinue the use of exorcism in baptism. He found an asylum in Quedlinburg (1590), and afterwards was transferred to St Martin's church at Brunswick (1599). Arndt's fame rests on his writings. These were mainly of a mystical and devotional kind, and were inspired by St Bernard, J. Tauler and Thomas a Kempis. His principal work, _Wahres Christentum_ (1606-1609), which has been translated into most European languages, has served as the foundation of many books of devotion, both Roman Catholic and Protestant. Arndt here dwells upon the mystical union between the believer and Christ, and endeavours, by drawing attention to Christ's life _in_ His people, to correct the purely forensic side of the Reformation theology, which paid almost exclusive attention to Christ's death _for_ His people. Like Luther, Arndt was very fond of the little anonymous book, _Deutsche Theologie_. He published an edition of it and called attention to its merits in a special preface. After _Wahres Christentum_, his best-known work is _Paradiesgartlein aller christlichen Tugenden_, which was published in 1612. Both these books have been translated into English; _Paradiesgartlein_ with the title the _Garden of Paradise_. Several of his sermons are published in R. Nesselmann's _Buch der Predigten_ (1858). Arndt has always been held in very high repute by the German Pietists. The founder of Pietism, Philipp Jacob Spener, repeatedly called attention to him and his writings, and even went so far as to compare him with Plato (cf. Karl Scheele, _Plato und Johann Arndt, Ein Vortrag, &c._, 1857). A collected edition of his works was published in Leipzig and Gorlitz in 1734. A valuable account of Arndt is to be found in C. Aschmann's _Essai sur la vie, &c., de J. Arndt_. See further, Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_. ARNE, THOMAS AUGUSTINE (1710-1778), English musical composer, was born in London on the 12th of March 1710, his father being an upholsterer. Intended for the legal profession, he was educated at Eton, and afterwards apprenticed to an attorney for three years. His natural inclination for music, however, proved irresistible, and his father, finding from his performance at an amateur musical party that he was already a skilful violinist, furnished him with the means of educating himself in his favourite art. On the 7th of March 1733 he produced his first work at Lincoln's Inn Fields theatre, a setting of Addison's _Rosamond_, the heroine's part being performed by his sister, Susanna Maria, who afterwards became celebrated as Mrs Gibber. This proving a success was immediately followed by a burletta, entitled _The Opera of Operas_, based on Fielding's _Tragedy of Tragedies_. The part of Tom Thumb was played by Arne's young brother, and the opera was produced at the Haymarket theatre. On the 19th of December 1733 Arne produced at the same theatre the masque _Dido and Aeneas_, a subject of which the musical conception had been immortalized for Englishmen more than half a century earlier by Henry Purcell. Arne's individuality of style first distinctly asserted itself in the music to Dr Dalton's adaptation of Milton's _Comus_, which was performed at Drury Lane in 1738, and speedily established his reputation. In 1740 he wrote the music for Thomson and Mallet's _Masque of Alfred_, which is noteworthy as containing the most popular of all his airs--"Rule, Britannia!" In 1740 he also wrote his beautiful settings of the songs, "Under the greenwood tree," "Blow, blow, thou winter wind" and "When daisies pied," for a performance of Shakespeare's _As You Like It_. Four years before this, in 1736, he had married Cecilia, the eldest daughter of Charles Young, organist of All Hallows Barking. She was considered the finest English singer of the day and was frequently engaged by Handel in the performance of his music. In 1742 Arne went with his wife to Dublin, where he remained two years and produced his oratorio _Abel_, containing the beautiful melody known as the Hymn of Eve, the operas _Britannia, Eliza_ and _Comus_, and where he also gave a number of successful concerts. On his return to London he was engaged as leader of the band at Drury Lane theatre (1744), and as composer at Vauxhall (1745). In this latter year he composed his successful pastoral dialogue, _Colin and Phoebe_, and in 1746 the song, "Where the bee sucks." In 1759 he received the degree of doctor of music from Oxford. In 1760 he transferred his services to Covent Garden theatre, where on the 28th of November he produced his _Thomas and Sally_. Here, too, on the 2nd of February 1762 he produced his _Artaxerxes_, an opera in the Italian style with recitative instead of spoken dialogue, the popularity of which is attested by the fact that it continued to be performed at intervals for upwards of eighty years. The libretto, by Arne himself, was a very poor translation of Metastasio's _Artaserse_. In 1762 also was produced the ballad-opera _Love in a Cottage_. His oratorio _Judith_, of which the first performance was on the 27th of February 1761 at Drury Lane, was revived at the chapel of the Lock hospital, Pimlico, on the 29th of February 1764, in which year was also performed his setting of Metastasio's _Olimpiade_ in the original language at the King's theatre in the Haymarket. At a later performance of _Judith_ at Covent Garden theatre on the 26th of February 1773 Arne for the first time introduced female voices into oratorio choruses. In 1769 he wrote the musical parts for Garrick's ode for the Shakespeare jubilee at Stratford-on-Avon, and in 1770 he gave a mutilated version of Purcell's _King Arthur_. One of his last dramatic works was the music to Mason's _Caractacus_, published in 1775. Though inferior to Purcell in intensity of feeling, Arne has not been surpassed as a composer of graceful and attractive melody. There is true genius in such airs as "Rule, Britannia!" and "Where the bee sucks," which still retain their original freshness and popularity. As a writer of glees he does not take such high rank, though he deserves notice as the leader in the revival of that peculiarly English form of composition. He was author as well as composer of _The Guardian outwitted_, _The Rose_, _The Contest of Beauty and Virtue_, and _Phoebe at Court_. Dr Arne died on the 5th of March 1778, and was buried at St Paul's, Covent Garden. See also the article in _Grove's Dictionary_ (new ed.); and two interesting papers in the _Musical Times_, November and December 1901. ARNETH, ALFRED, RITTER VON (1819-1897), Austrian historian, born at Vienna on the both of July 1819, was the son of Joseph Calasanza von Arneth (1791-1863), a well-known historian and archaeologist, who wrote a history of the Austrian empire (Vienna, 1827) and several works on numismatics. Alfred Arneth studied law, and became an official of the Austrian state archives, of which in 1868 he was appointed keeper. He was a moderate liberal in politics and a supporter of the ideal of German unity. As such he was elected to the Frankfort parliament in