Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Armour Plates" to "Arundel, Earls of"
1. Brother of Darius I., and, according to Herodotus, the trusted
adviser of his nephew Xerxes. Herodotus makes him a principal figure in
epic dialogues: he warns Darius not to attack the Scythians (iv. 83; cf.
also iv. 143), and predicts to Xerxes his defeat by the Greeks (vii. 10
ff., 46 ff.); Xerxes sent him home to govern the empire during the
campaign (vii. 52, 53).
Chapters
- Chapter 1 Ch.1
- 1. _Stone Age._--One of the chief problems which have perplexed Ch.2
- 2. _Bronze Age._--It is impossible to assign any date as the beginning Ch.3
- 3. _Early Greek Weapons._--The character of the weapons used by the Ch.4
- 4. _Greek, Historical._--The equipment does not differ generically from Ch.5
- 5. _Roman._--The equipment of the Roman soldier, like the organization Ch.6
- 6. _English from the Norman Conquest._--It is unnecessary here to trace Ch.7
- 7. _Fire-arms._ (For the development of cannon, see ARTILLERY and Ch.8
- 1. _Early Armies._--It is only with the evolution of the specially Ch.9
- 2. _Persia._--Drawn from a hardy and nomadic race, the armies of Persia Ch.10
- 3. _Greece._--The Homeric armies were tribal levies of foot, armed with Ch.11
- 4. _Sparta._--So much is common to the various states. In Sparta the Ch.12
- 5. _Greek Mercenaries._--The military system of the 4th century was not Ch.13
- 6. _Epaminondas._--Not many years after this, Spartan oppression roused Ch.14
- 7. _Alexander._--The reforms of Alexander's father, Philip of Macedon, Ch.15
- 8. _Carthage._--The military systems of the Jews present few features of Ch.16
- 9. _Roman Army under the Republic._--The earliest organization of the Ch.17
- 10. _Characteristics of the Roman Army._--Such in outline was the Roman Ch.18
- 11. _Roman Empire._--The essential weaknesses of militia forces and the Ch.19
- 12. _The "Dark Ages."_--In western Europe all traces of Roman military Ch.20
- 13. _The Byzantines_ (cf. article ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER).--While the west Ch.21
- 14. _Feudalism._--From the military point of view the change under Ch.22
- 15. _Medieval Mercenaries._--It was natural, therefore, that a sovereign Ch.23
- 16. _Infantry in Feudal Times._--These mercenary foot soldiers came as a Ch.24
- 17. _The Crusades._--It is an undoubted fact that the long wars of the Ch.25
- 18. _The Period of Transition_ (1290-1490).--Besides the infantry Ch.26
- 19. _The Condottieri._--The immediate result of this confused period of Ch.27
- 20. _The Swiss._--The best description of a typical European army at the Ch.28
- 21. _The Landsknechts._--The modern army owes far more of its Ch.29
- 22. _The Spanish Army._--The tendencies towards professional soldiering Ch.30
- 23. _The Sixteenth Century._--The battle of St Quentin (1557) is usually Ch.31
- 24. _Dutch System._--The most interesting feature of the Dutch system, Ch.32
- 25. _The Thirty Years' War._--Hitherto all armies had been raised or Ch.33
- 26. _The Swedish Army._--The Swedish army was raised by a carefully Ch.34
- 27. _The English Civil War_ (see GREAT REBELLION).--The armies on either Ch.35
- 28. _Standing Armies._--Nine years after Nordlingen, the old Spanish Ch.36
- 29. _Character of the Standing Armies._--A peculiar character was from Ch.37
- 30. _Organization in the 18th Century._--All armies were now almost Ch.38
- 31. _Frederick the Great._--The military career of Frederick the Great Ch.39
- 32. _The French Revolution._--Very different were the armies of the Ch.40
- 33. _The Conscription._--In 1793, at a moment when the danger to France Ch.41
- 34. _Napoleon._--Revolutionary government, however, gave way in a few Ch.42
- 35. _The Grande Armee._--In 1805-1806, when the older spirit of the Ch.43
- 36. _The Wars of Liberation._--The Prussian defeat at Jena was followed Ch.44
- 37. _European Armies 1815-1870._--The events of the period 1815-1859 Ch.45
- 38. _Modern Developments._--Since 1870, then, with the single exception Ch.46
- 39. The main principles of all military organization as developed in Ch.47
- 40. _Compulsory Service._--Universal liability to service (_allgemeine Ch.48
- 41. _Conscription_ in the proper sense, i.e. selection by lot of a Ch.49
- 42. _Voluntary Service._--Existing voluntary armies have usually Ch.50
- 43. The militia idea (see MILITIA) has been applied most completely in Ch.51
- 44. _Arms of the Service._--Organization into "arms" is produced by the Ch.52
- 45. _Command._--The first essential of a good organization is to ensure Ch.53
- 46. A _brigade_ is the command of a brigadier or major-general, or of a Ch.54
- 47. A _division_ is an organization containing troops of all arms. Since Ch.55
- 48. _Army Corps._--The "corps" of the 18th century was simply a large Ch.56
- 49. _Constitution of the Army Corps._--In 1870-71 the III. German army Ch.57
- 50. _Army._--The term "army" is applied, in war time, to any command of Ch.58
- 51. _Chief Command._--The leading of the "group of armies" referred to Ch.59
- 52. The _Chief of the General Staff_ is, as his title implies, the chief Ch.60
- 53. _First and Second Lines._--The organization into arms and units is Ch.61
- 54. _War Reserves._--In war, the reserves increase the field armies to Ch.62
- 55. The military characteristics of the various types of regular troops Ch.63
- 56. The transfer of troops from the state of peace to that of war is Ch.64
- 57. _Territorial System._--The feudal system was of course a territorial Ch.65
- 58. _Army Administration._--The existing systems of command and Ch.66
- 59. _Branches of Administration._--In these circumstances the only Ch.67
- 60. Prior to the Norman Conquest the armed force of England was Ch.68
- 61. It is difficult to summarize the history of the army between the Ch.69
- 62. The first years of the Great Rebellion (q.v.) showed primarily the Ch.70
- 63. James II., an experienced soldier and sailor, was more obstinate Ch.71
- 64. Under William the army was considerably augmented. The old regiments Ch.72
- 65. Before passing to the great French Revolutionary wars, from which a Ch.73
- 66. The first efforts of the army in the long war with France did not Ch.74
- 67. The period which elapsed between Waterloo and the Crimean War is Ch.75
- 68. The Indian Mutiny of 1857, followed by the transference of the Ch.76
- 69. The period of reform commences therefore with 1870, and is connected Ch.77
- 70. Historically, the Indian army grew up in three distinct divisions, Ch.78
- 71. _Madras._--The first armed force in the Madras presidency was the Ch.79
- 72. _Bombay._--The island of Bombay formed part of the marriage Ch.80
- 73. _Consolidation of the Army._--In 1796 a general reorganization Ch.81
- 74. _The Army before the Mutiny._--The officering and recruiting of Ch.82
- 75. _The Reorganization._--By the autumn of 1858 the mutiny was Ch.83
- 76. _The Modern Army._--The college at Addiscombe was closed in 1860, Ch.84
- 77. In the earliest European settlements in Canada, the necessity of Ch.85
- 78. The _Landsknecht_ infantry constituted the mainstay of the imperial Ch.86
- 79. The Austrians, during the short peace which preceded the war of Ch.87
- 80. The Austrian system has conserved much of the peculiar tone of the Ch.88
- 81. The French army (see for further details FRANCE: _Law and Ch.89
- 82. The artillery had been an industrial concern rather than an arm of Ch.90
- 83. The last half of the 17th century is a brilliant period in the Ch.91
- 84. If Louis was the creator of the royal army, Carnot was so of the Ch.92
- 85. One of the first acts of the Restoration was to abolish the Ch.93
- 86. At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (q.v.) the French field Ch.94
- 87. The German army, strictly speaking, dates only from 1871, or at Ch.95
- 88. The bitter humiliation and suffering endured under the French yoke Ch.96
- 89. The _Saxon Army_ formerly played a prominent part in all the wars of Ch.97
- 90. The _Bavarian Army_ has perhaps the most continuous record of good Ch.98
- 91. _Wurttemberg_ furnishes one army corps (XIII.; headquarters, Ch.99
- 92. The old _Hanoverian Army_ disappeared, of course, with the Ch.100
- 93. The old conscription law of the kingdom of Sardinia is the basis of Ch.101
- 94. The history of the Russian army begins with the abolition of the Ch.102
- 95. The feudal sovereignties of medieval Spain differed but little, in Ch.103
- 96. With the Italian wars of the early 16th century came the Ch.104
- 97. The military history of Spain from 1650 to 1700 is full of Ch.105
- 98. The writers who have left the most complete and trustworthy Ch.106
- 99. The regular army of the United States has always been small. From Ch.107
- 100. _Dutch and Belgian Armies._--The military power of the "United Ch.108
- 101. _Swiss Army._--The inhabitants of Switzerland were always a hardy Ch.109
- 102. The _Swedish Army_ can look back with pride to the days of Ch.110
- 103. The existing Army of _Portugal_ dates from the Peninsular War, Ch.111
- 104. The _Rumanian, Bulgarian_ and _Servian_ armies are the youngest Ch.112
- 1804. Arnault died at Goderville on the 16th of September 1834. Ch.113
- 1848. In 1861 he became a member of the Lower Austrian diet and in 1869 Ch.114
- 1785. After being educated at a convent school in Fritzlar, she lived Ch.115
- 1822. When it is said that he was the son of the famous Dr Arnold of Ch.116
- 1827. In June 1828 he received priest's orders; in April end November of Ch.117
- 4. Spike of fruits. Showing in succession (from below) female flowers, Ch.118
- 3000. It lies in a pleasant undulating country at an elevation of 900 Ch.119
- introduction of European spirits and methods of manufacture is gradually Ch.120
- 500. This was soon transferred to Cambrai, but brought back to its Ch.121
- 1. Warrants are ordinarily granted by justices of the peace on Ch.122
- 2. The officers who may arrest without warrant are,--justices of the Ch.123
- 3. A private person is bound to arrest for a felony committed in his Ch.124
- 4. The arrest by hue and cry is where officers and private persons are Ch.125
- 1826. They are under the direction of maritime prefects, who, by a Ch.126
- 1. Daughter of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, first wife of Ptolemy II. Ch.127
- 2. Daughter of Ptolemy I. Soter and Berenice. Born about 316 B.C., she Ch.128
- 3. Daughter of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, sister and wife of Ptolemy IV. Ch.129
- 4. Youngest daughter of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, and sister of the famous Ch.130
- 819. The streets of the town were widened and improved in 1869. Ch.131
- 1. Brother of Darius I., and, according to Herodotus, the trusted Ch.132
- 2. Vizier of Xerxes (Ctesias, _Pers_. 20), whom he murdered in 465 B.C. Ch.133
- 3. A satrap of Bactria, who revolted against Artaxerxes I., but was Ch.134
- 4. ARTABANUS I., successor of his nephew Phraates II. about 127 B.C., Ch.135
- 5. ARTABANUS II. c. A.D. 10-40, son of an Arsacid princess (Tac. _Ann_. Ch.136
- 18. 9). In A.D. 35 he tried anew to conquer Armenia, and to establish Ch.137
- 6. ARTABANUS III. reigned a short time in A.D. 80 (on a coin of this Ch.138
- 7. ARTABANUS IV., the last Parthian king, younger son of Vologaeses IV., Ch.139
- 1. ARTAXERXES I., surnamed _Macrocheir, Longimanus_, "Longhand," because Ch.140
- 2. ARTAXERXES II., surnamed _Mnemon_, the eldest son of Darius II., whom Ch.141
- 3. ARTAXERXES III. is the title adopted by Ochus, the son of Artaxerxes Ch.142
- 1876. Since 1905 the Art Collections Fund, a society of private Ch.143
- part ii. of Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_). Ch.144
- 5. Lankester, "Observations and Reflections on the Appendages and Ch.145
- 1622. Of the numerous later editions, the best is that of Achille le Ch.146
- 1. _Early Artillery._--Mechanical appliances for throwing projectiles Ch.147
- 2. _The Beginnings of Field Artillery._--It is clear, from such evidence Ch.148
- 3. _The 16th Century._--In the Italian wars waged by Charles VIII., Ch.149
- 4. _The Thirty Years' War._--Such, in its broadest outlines, is the Ch.150
- 5. _Personnel and Classification._--More than 300 years after the first Ch.151
- 6. _The English Civil War._--Even in the English Civil War (Great Ch.152
- 7. _Artillery Progress, 1660-1740._--Cromwell's practice of relegating Ch.153
- 8. _Artillery in the Wars of Frederick the Great._--By the time of Ch.154
- 9. _Gribeauval's Reforms._--At the commencement of the 18th century, Ch.155
- 10. _British Artillery, 1793-1815._--Meanwhile the numbers of the Ch.156
- 11. _French Revolutionary Wars._--During the long wars of the French Ch.157
- 12. _Napoleon's Artillery Tactics._--During the war the French artillery Ch.158
- 13. _Artillery, 1815-1865._--Henceforward, therefore, the history of Ch.159
- 14. _The Franco-German War, 1870-71._--In the next great war, that of Ch.160
- 15. _Results of the War._--The tactical lessons of the war, so far as Ch.161
- 16. _Quick-firing Field Guns._--In 1891, a work by General Wille of the Ch.162
- 17. _Time Shrapnel._--The power of modern artillery owes even more to Ch.163
- 18. _Heavy Field, Siege and Garrison Artillery._--Amongst other results Ch.164
- 19. _Field Artillery Organization._--A _battery_ of field artillery Ch.165
- introduction of the quick-firing gun, the tendency towards small Ch.166
- 20. _Ammunition._--The vehicles of a battery include (besides guns and Ch.167
- 21. _Interior Economy._--The organization and interior economy of a Ch.168
- 22. _Special Natures of Field Artillery._--_Horse Artillery_ differs Ch.169
- 23. _Heavy Ordnance._--_Heavy Field Artillery_, officially defined as Ch.170
- 24. _Higher Organization of Artillery._--The higher units, in almost Ch.171
- 25. _Grouping of the Artillery._--The "corps artillery" (formerly the Ch.172
- 26. _General Characteristics of Field Artillery Action._--The duty of Ch.173
- 27. _Occupation of a Position._--This depends primarily upon Ch.174
- introduction of the shield. A great advantage of retired positions is Ch.175
- introduction of the shield. The disadvantage of extra weight and Ch.176
- 28. _Laying._--"Elevation" may be defined as the vertical inclination of Ch.177
- 29. _Ranging_[4] (except on the French system alluded to below) is, Ch.178
- 30. An example of the ordinary method of ranging, adapted from _Field Ch.179
- 31. _Observation of Fire_, on the accuracy of which depends the success Ch.180
- 32. _Fire._--Field Artillery ranges are classed in the British service Ch.181
- 33. _Projectiles Employed._--"Time shrapnel," say the German Field Ch.182
- 34. _Tactics of Field Artillery._--On the march, the position and Ch.183
- 35. Field artillery in _defence_, which would presumably be inferior to Ch.184
- 36. _Marches._--The importance of having the artillery well up at the Ch.185
- 37. _Power and Mobility._--It will have been made clear that every gun Ch.186
- 38. _Concentration and Dispersion._--The use of their artillery made by Ch.187
- 39. _Horse Artillery_ is to be regarded as field artillery of great Ch.188
- 40. _Field Howitzers_ are somewhat less mobile than field guns; they Ch.189
- 41. _Heavy Field Artillery_, alternatively called _Artillery of Ch.190
- 1. As regards the teeth, we have the passage of a simply tubercular, or Ch.191
- 2. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a complete and Ch.192
- 3. Change of form of the odontoid process of the second or axis Ch.193
- 4. Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and gradual Ch.194
- 5. By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with ruminating Ch.195
- 1907. In every direction there has been a tendency to increase prices Ch.196
- 1884. The Artists' Society, formed in 1830, has for its object the Ch.197