Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Armour Plates" to "Arundel, Earls of"

concerned in _pursuing_ felons, or such as have dangerously wounded others. By the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881, provision was made for the arrest in the United Kingdom of persons committing treason, and felony in any of the British colonies and vice versa; as to the arrest of fugitives in foreign countries see EXTRADITION. The remedy for a wrongful arrest is by an action for false imprisonment. In Scotland the law of arrest in criminal procedure has a general constitutional analogy with that of England, though the practice differs with the varying character of the judicatories. Colloquially the word arrest is used in compulsory procedure for the recovery of debt; but the technical term applicable in that department is _caption_, and the law on the subject is generically different from that of England. There never was a practice in Scottish law corresponding with the English arrest in mesne process; but by old custom a warrant for caption could be obtained where a creditor made oath that he had reason to believe his debtor meditated flight from the country, and the writ so issued is called a warrant against a person _in meditatione fugae_. Imprisonment of old followed on ecclesiastical cursing, and by fiction of law in later times it was not the creditor's remedy, but the punishment of a refractory person denounced rebel for disobedience to the injunctions of the law requiring fulfilment of his obligation. The system was reformed and stripped of its cumbrous fictions by an act of the year 1837. Although the proceedings against the person could only follow on completed process, yet, by a peculiarity of the Scottish law, documents executed with certain formalities, and by special statute bills and promissory notes, can be registered in the records of a court for execution against the person as if they were judgments of the court. The general principles as to the law of arrest in most European countries correspond more or less exactly to those prevailing in England. An _arrest of a ship_, which is the method of enforcing the admiralty process _in rem_, founded either on a maritime lien or on a claim against the ship, is dealt with under ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION. See also article ATTACHMENT. _Arrest of Judgment_ is the assigning just reason why judgment should not pass, notwithstanding verdict given, either in civil or in criminal cases, and from intrinsic causes arising on the face of the record. _United States._--The law of arrest assimilates to that existing in England. Actual manual touching is not necessary (_Pike_ v. _Hanson_, 9 N.H. 491; _Hill_ v. _Taylor_, 50 Mich. 549); words of arrest by the officer, not protested against and no resistance offered, are sufficient (_Emery_ v. _Chesley_, 18 N.H. 198; _Goodell_ v. _Tower_, 1904, 58 Am. Rep. 790). Words of arrest, staying over night at prisoner's house, going with him before the magistrate next day constitute arrest (_Courtery_ v. _Dozier_, 20 Ga. 369). Restraining a person in his own house is arrest. In civil cases in most of the states arrest for debt is abolished, except in cases of fraud or wilful injury to persons or property by constitutional provision or by statute. One arrested under process of a federal court cannot be arrested under that of a state court for the same cause. There is no provision in the United States constitution as to imprisonment for debt, but congress has enacted (in Rev. Stat., s. 990) that all the provisions of the law of any state applicable to such imprisonment shall apply to the process of federal courts in that state. A woman can be arrested in New York for wilful injury to person, character or property, and in certain other cases (Code, s. 553). The president, federal officials, governors of states, members of congress and of state legislatures (during the session), marines, soldiers and sailors on duty, voters while going to and from the polls, judges, court officials (1904, 100 N.W. 591), coroners and jurors while attending upon their public duties, lawyers, parties and witnesses while going to, attending or returning from court, and generally married women without separate property, are exempt from arrest. In criminal cases a bench-warrant in New York may be served in any county without being backed by a magistrate (Code Crim. Proc., s. 304). In Nebraska one found violating the law may be arrested and detained until a legal warrant can be issued (Crim. Code, s. 283). A bail may lawfully recapture his principal (1905) 121 Georgia Rep. 594. Foreign ambassadors and ministers and their servants are exempt from arrest. Exemption from arrest is a privilege, not of the court, as in England, but of the person, and can be waived (_Petrie_ v. _Fitzgerald_, 1 Daly 401). ARRESTMENT, in Scots law, the process by which a creditor detains the goods or effects of his debtor in the hands of third parties till the debt due to him shall be paid. It is divided into two kinds: (1) Arrestment in security, used when proceedings are commencing, or in other circumstances where a claim may become, but is not yet, enforceable; and (2) Arrestment in execution, following on the decree of a court, or on a registered document, under a clause or statutory power of registration, according to the custom of Scotland. By the process of arrestment the property covered is merely retained in place; to realize it for the satisfaction of the creditor's claim a further proceeding called "furthcoming" is necessary. By old practice, alimentary funds, i.e. those necessary for subsistence, were not liable to arrestment. By the Wages Arrestment Limitation (Scotland) Act 1870, the wages of all labourers, farm-servants, manufacturers, artificers and work-people are not arrestable except (1) in so far as they exceed 20s. per week; but the expense of the arrestment is not to be charged against the debtor unless the sum recovered exceed the amount of the said expense; or (2) under decrees for alimentary allowances and payments, or for rates and taxes imposed by law. ARRETIUM (mod. _Arezzo_), an ancient city of Etruria, in the upper valley of the Arno, situated on the Via Cassia, 50 m. S.E. of Florentia. The site of the original city is not quite certain; some writers place it on the isolated hill called Poggio di S. Cornelio, 2-1/2 m. to the S.E., where remains of a fortified _enceinte_ still exist (cf. F. Noack in _Romische Mitteilungen_, 1897, p. 186); while others maintain, and probably rightly, that it occupied the hill at the summit of the modern town, where the medieval citadel (_fortezza_) was erected, and which was enclosed by an ancient wall. Numerous Etruscan tombs have been discovered within the lower portion of the area of the modern town, which appears to correspond in site with the Roman (_C.I.L._ xi. p. 1082; G. Gamurrini in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1883, 262; 1887, 437). Vitruvius (ii. 8. 9) and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxv. 173) speak of the strength of its walls of bricks, but these have naturally disappeared. Many remains of Roman buildings have been discovered within the modern town, and the amphitheatre is still visible in the southern angle. Arretium appears as one of the cities which aided the Tarquins after their expulsion. It was an opponent of Rome at the end of the 4th and beginning of the 3rd century B.C., but soon sought for help against the attacks of the Gauls, against whom it was almost a frontier fortress. It was an important Roman base during the Hannibalic wars (though at one time it threatened defection--Livy xxvii. 21-24), and in 205 B.C. was able to furnish Scipio with a considerable quantity of arms and provisions (Livy xxviii. 45). In 187 B.C. the high road was extended as far as Bononia. Arretium took the part of Marius against Sulla, and the latter settled some of his veterans there as colonists. Caesar, or Octavian, added others, so that there are three classes, _Arretini veteres, Fidentiores_, and _Iulienses_. A considerable contingent from Arretium joined Catiline and in 49 B.C. Caesar occupied it. C. Maecenas[1] was perhaps a native of Arretium. Its fertility was famous in ancient times, and still more the red pottery made of the local clay, with its imitation of chased silver. The reliefs upon it are sometimes of considerable beauty, and large quantities of it, and the sites of several of the kilns, have been discovered in and near Arretium. It was also considerably exported. See _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ xi. (Berlin, 1901) p. 1081, and _Notizie degli scavi, passim_ (especially, 1884, 369, for the discovery of a fine group of the moulds from which these vases were made). The museum contains a very fine collection of these and a good collection of medieval majolica. (T. As.) FOOTNOTE: [1] The name Cilnius was apparently never borne by Maecenas himself, though he is so described, e.g. by Tacitus, _Ann_. vi. II, cf. Macrob. ii. 4, 12. The Cilnii with whom Maecenas was connected were a noble Etruscan family. ARRHENIUS, SVANTE AUGUST (1859- ), Swedish physicist and chemist, was born on the 19th of February 1859, at Schloss Wijk, near Upsala. He studied at Upsala from 1876 to 1881 and at Stockholm from 1881 to 1884, then returning to Upsala as privat-docent in physical chemistry. He spent two years from 1886 to 1888 in travelling, and visited Riga Polytechnic and the universities of Wurzburg, Graz, Amsterdam and Leipzig. In 1891 he was appointed lecturer in physics at Stockholm and four years later became full professor. Arrhenius is specially associated with the development of the theory of electrolytic dissociation, and his great paper on the subject, _Recherches sur la conductibilite galvanique des electrolytes_--(1) _conductibilite galvanique des solutions aqueuses extremement diluees_, (2) _theorie chimique des electrolytes_, was presented to the Stockholm Academy of Sciences in 1883. He was subsequently continuously engaged in extending the applications of the doctrine of electrolytic conduction in relation not only to the problems of chemical action but also, on the supposition that in certain conditions the air conducts electrolytically, to the phenomena of atmospheric electricity. In 1900 he published a _Larobok i teoretik elektrokemi_, which was translated into German and English, and his _Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik_ appeared in 1903. In 1904 he delivered at the university of California a course of lectures, the object of which was to illustrate the application of the methods of physical chemistry to the study of the theory of toxins and antitoxins, and which were published in 1907 under the title _Immunochemistry_. In his _Worlds in the Making_ (1908), an English translation of _Das Werden der Welten_ (1907), he combated the generally accepted doctrine that the universe is tending to what Clausius termed _Warmetod_ through exhaustion of all sources of heat and motion, and suggested that by virtue of a mechanism which maintains its available energy it is self-renovating, energy being "degraded" in bodies which are in the solar state, but "elevated" or raised to a higher level in bodies which are in the nebular state. He further put forward the conception that life is universally diffused, constantly emitted from all habitable worlds in the form of spores which traverse space for years or ages, the majority being ultimately destroyed by the heat of some blazing star, but some few finding a resting-place on bodies which have reached the habitable stage. ARRIA, in Roman history, the heroic wife of Caecina Paetus. When her husband was implicated in the conspiracy of Scribonianus against the emperor Claudius (A.D. 42), and condemned to death, she resolved not to survive him. She accordingly stabbed herself with a dagger, which she then handed to him with the words, "Paetus, it does not hurt" (_Paete, non dolet_; see Pliny, _Epp._ iii. 16; Martial i. 14; Dio Cassius lx. 16). Her daughter, also called Arria, was the wife of Thrasea Paetus. When he was condemned to death by Nero, she would have imitated her mother's example, but was dissuaded by her husband, who entreated her to live for the sake of their children. She was sent into banishment (Tacitus, _Annals_, xvi. 34). ARRIAN (FLAVIUS ARRIANUS), of Nicomedia in Bithynia, Greek historian and philosopher, was born about A.D. 96, and lived during the reigns of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. In recognition of his abilities, he received the citizenship of both Athens and Rome. He was greatly esteemed by Hadrian, who appointed him governor (_legatus_) of Cappadocia (131-137), in which capacity he distinguished himself in a campaign against the Alani. This is the only instance before the 3rd century in which a first-rate Roman military command was given to a Greek. Arrian spent a considerable portion of his time at Athens, where he was archon 147-148. With his retirement or recall from Cappadocia his official career came to an end. In his declining years, he retired to his native place, where he devoted himself to literary work. He died about 180. His biography, by Dio Cassius, is lost. When young, Arrian was the pupil and friend of Epictetus, who had probably withdrawn to Nicopolis, when Domitian expelled all philosophers from Rome. He took verbatim notes of his teacher's lectures, which he subsequently published under the title of _The Dissertations_ ([Greek: Diatribai]), in eight books, of which the first four are extant and constitute the chief authority for Stoic ethics, and _The Encheiridion_ (i.e. Manual) _of Epictetus_, a handbook of moral philosophy, for many years a favourite instruction book with both Christians and pagans. It was adapted for Christian use by St Nilus of Constantinople (5th century), and Simplicius (about 550) wrote a commentary on it which we still possess. The most important of Arrian's original works is his _Anabasis of Alexander_, in seven books, containing the history of Alexander the Great from his accession to his death. Arrian's chief authorities were, as he tells us, Aristobulus of Cassandreia and Ptolemy, son of Lagus (afterwards king of Egypt), who both accompanied Alexander on his campaigns. In spite of a too indulgent view of his hero's defects, and some over-credulity, Arrian's is the most complete and trustworthy account of Alexander that we possess. Other extant works of Arrian are: _Indica_, a description of India in the Ionic dialect, including the voyage of Nearchus, intended as a supplement to the _Anabasis; Acies Contra Alanos_, a fragment of importance for the knowledge of Roman military affairs; _Periplus of the Euxine_, an official account written (131) for the emperor Hadrian; _Tactica_, attributed by some to Aelianus, who wrote in the reign of Trajan; _Cynegeticus_, a treatise on the chase, supplementing Xenophon's work on the same subject; the _Periplus of the Erythraean Sea_, attributed to him, is by a later compiler. Amongst his lost works may be mentioned: [Greek: Ta mer Alexandron], a history of the period succeeding Alexander, of which an epitome is preserved in Photius; histories of Bithynia, the Alani and the Parthian wars under Trajan; the lives of Timoleon of Syracuse, Dion of Syracuse and a famous brigand named Timoleon. Arrian's style is simple, lucid and manly; but his language, though pure, presents some peculiarities. He was called "Xenophon the younger" from his imitation of that writer, and he even speaks of himself as Xenophon. Complete works ed. F. Dubner (1846); _Anabasis_, C. Abicht (1889); with notes, C.W. Kniger (1835), C. Sintenis (1867) C. Abicht (1875); _Scripta Minora_, R. Hercher and A. Eberhard (1885), A.J. Roos, i., containing the _Anabasis_ (Teubner series, 1907). English translations _Anabasis_, Rooke (1812), _Anabasis_ and _Indica_, E.J. Chinnock (1893); _Voyage of Nearchus_ with the spurious _Periplus_, W. Vincent (1807), J.W. M'Crindle (Calcutta, 1879), _Periplus of the Euxine_, W. Falconer (1805), Cynegettcus [W. Dansey] (1831). See also E. Bolla, _Arriano di Nicomedia_ (1890); E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (1896), H.F. Pelham, "Arrian as Legate of Cappadocia," in _English Historical Review_, October 1896; article GREECE: _History, ancient_, "Authorities." ARRIS (Fr. _areste_, or _arete_), in architecture, the sharp edge or angle in which two sides or surfaces meet. ARRONDISSEMENT (from _arrondir_, to make round), an administrative subdivision of a department in France. Dating nominally from 1800, the arrondissement was really a re-creation of the "district" of 1790. It comprises within itself the canton and the commune. It differs from the department and from the commune in being merely an administrative division and not a complete legal personality with power to acquire and possess. The purposes for which it exists are, again, unlike those of the department and the commune, comparatively limited. It is the electoral district for the chamber of deputies, each arrondissement returning one member; if the population is in excess of 100,000 it is divided into two or more constituencies. It is also a judicial district having a court of first instance. It is under the control of a sub-prefect. There are 362 arrondissements in the 87 departments. Each arrondissement has a council, with as many members as there are cantons, whose function is to subdivide among the communes their _quota_ of the direct taxes charged to the arrondissement by the general council of the department. (See FRANCE) Somewhat different from the arrondissements of the department are the arrondissements (20 in number) into which Paris is divided. They bear a certain resemblance to the sub-municipalities created in London by the London Government Act 1899, and each forms a local administrative unit (see PARIS). France is also subdivided, for purposes of defence, into five _maritime_ divisions, termed arrondissements. Instituted originally under the Consulate, they were suppressed in 1815, but re-established again in