Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Armour Plates" to "Arundel, Earls of"
2. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a complete and
distinct bone to a comparatively rudimentary state in which it coalesces
more or less firmly with the radius. Reduction of the fibula till
nothing but its lower extremity remains. Reduction and final loss of
outer pair of digits (second and fifth), with coalescence of the
metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the two middle digits to form a
cannon-bone. Union of the navicular and cuboid, and sometimes the
ectocuneiform bone, of the tarsus.
Chapters
- Chapter 1 Ch.1
- 1. _Stone Age._--One of the chief problems which have perplexed Ch.2
- 2. _Bronze Age._--It is impossible to assign any date as the beginning Ch.3
- 3. _Early Greek Weapons._--The character of the weapons used by the Ch.4
- 4. _Greek, Historical._--The equipment does not differ generically from Ch.5
- 5. _Roman._--The equipment of the Roman soldier, like the organization Ch.6
- 6. _English from the Norman Conquest._--It is unnecessary here to trace Ch.7
- 7. _Fire-arms._ (For the development of cannon, see ARTILLERY and Ch.8
- 1. _Early Armies._--It is only with the evolution of the specially Ch.9
- 2. _Persia._--Drawn from a hardy and nomadic race, the armies of Persia Ch.10
- 3. _Greece._--The Homeric armies were tribal levies of foot, armed with Ch.11
- 4. _Sparta._--So much is common to the various states. In Sparta the Ch.12
- 5. _Greek Mercenaries._--The military system of the 4th century was not Ch.13
- 6. _Epaminondas._--Not many years after this, Spartan oppression roused Ch.14
- 7. _Alexander._--The reforms of Alexander's father, Philip of Macedon, Ch.15
- 8. _Carthage._--The military systems of the Jews present few features of Ch.16
- 9. _Roman Army under the Republic._--The earliest organization of the Ch.17
- 10. _Characteristics of the Roman Army._--Such in outline was the Roman Ch.18
- 11. _Roman Empire._--The essential weaknesses of militia forces and the Ch.19
- 12. _The "Dark Ages."_--In western Europe all traces of Roman military Ch.20
- 13. _The Byzantines_ (cf. article ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER).--While the west Ch.21
- 14. _Feudalism._--From the military point of view the change under Ch.22
- 15. _Medieval Mercenaries._--It was natural, therefore, that a sovereign Ch.23
- 16. _Infantry in Feudal Times._--These mercenary foot soldiers came as a Ch.24
- 17. _The Crusades._--It is an undoubted fact that the long wars of the Ch.25
- 18. _The Period of Transition_ (1290-1490).--Besides the infantry Ch.26
- 19. _The Condottieri._--The immediate result of this confused period of Ch.27
- 20. _The Swiss._--The best description of a typical European army at the Ch.28
- 21. _The Landsknechts._--The modern army owes far more of its Ch.29
- 22. _The Spanish Army._--The tendencies towards professional soldiering Ch.30
- 23. _The Sixteenth Century._--The battle of St Quentin (1557) is usually Ch.31
- 24. _Dutch System._--The most interesting feature of the Dutch system, Ch.32
- 25. _The Thirty Years' War._--Hitherto all armies had been raised or Ch.33
- 26. _The Swedish Army._--The Swedish army was raised by a carefully Ch.34
- 27. _The English Civil War_ (see GREAT REBELLION).--The armies on either Ch.35
- 28. _Standing Armies._--Nine years after Nordlingen, the old Spanish Ch.36
- 29. _Character of the Standing Armies._--A peculiar character was from Ch.37
- 30. _Organization in the 18th Century._--All armies were now almost Ch.38
- 31. _Frederick the Great._--The military career of Frederick the Great Ch.39
- 32. _The French Revolution._--Very different were the armies of the Ch.40
- 33. _The Conscription._--In 1793, at a moment when the danger to France Ch.41
- 34. _Napoleon._--Revolutionary government, however, gave way in a few Ch.42
- 35. _The Grande Armee._--In 1805-1806, when the older spirit of the Ch.43
- 36. _The Wars of Liberation._--The Prussian defeat at Jena was followed Ch.44
- 37. _European Armies 1815-1870._--The events of the period 1815-1859 Ch.45
- 38. _Modern Developments._--Since 1870, then, with the single exception Ch.46
- 39. The main principles of all military organization as developed in Ch.47
- 40. _Compulsory Service._--Universal liability to service (_allgemeine Ch.48
- 41. _Conscription_ in the proper sense, i.e. selection by lot of a Ch.49
- 42. _Voluntary Service._--Existing voluntary armies have usually Ch.50
- 43. The militia idea (see MILITIA) has been applied most completely in Ch.51
- 44. _Arms of the Service._--Organization into "arms" is produced by the Ch.52
- 45. _Command._--The first essential of a good organization is to ensure Ch.53
- 46. A _brigade_ is the command of a brigadier or major-general, or of a Ch.54
- 47. A _division_ is an organization containing troops of all arms. Since Ch.55
- 48. _Army Corps._--The "corps" of the 18th century was simply a large Ch.56
- 49. _Constitution of the Army Corps._--In 1870-71 the III. German army Ch.57
- 50. _Army._--The term "army" is applied, in war time, to any command of Ch.58
- 51. _Chief Command._--The leading of the "group of armies" referred to Ch.59
- 52. The _Chief of the General Staff_ is, as his title implies, the chief Ch.60
- 53. _First and Second Lines._--The organization into arms and units is Ch.61
- 54. _War Reserves._--In war, the reserves increase the field armies to Ch.62
- 55. The military characteristics of the various types of regular troops Ch.63
- 56. The transfer of troops from the state of peace to that of war is Ch.64
- 57. _Territorial System._--The feudal system was of course a territorial Ch.65
- 58. _Army Administration._--The existing systems of command and Ch.66
- 59. _Branches of Administration._--In these circumstances the only Ch.67
- 60. Prior to the Norman Conquest the armed force of England was Ch.68
- 61. It is difficult to summarize the history of the army between the Ch.69
- 62. The first years of the Great Rebellion (q.v.) showed primarily the Ch.70
- 63. James II., an experienced soldier and sailor, was more obstinate Ch.71
- 64. Under William the army was considerably augmented. The old regiments Ch.72
- 65. Before passing to the great French Revolutionary wars, from which a Ch.73
- 66. The first efforts of the army in the long war with France did not Ch.74
- 67. The period which elapsed between Waterloo and the Crimean War is Ch.75
- 68. The Indian Mutiny of 1857, followed by the transference of the Ch.76
- 69. The period of reform commences therefore with 1870, and is connected Ch.77
- 70. Historically, the Indian army grew up in three distinct divisions, Ch.78
- 71. _Madras._--The first armed force in the Madras presidency was the Ch.79
- 72. _Bombay._--The island of Bombay formed part of the marriage Ch.80
- 73. _Consolidation of the Army._--In 1796 a general reorganization Ch.81
- 74. _The Army before the Mutiny._--The officering and recruiting of Ch.82
- 75. _The Reorganization._--By the autumn of 1858 the mutiny was Ch.83
- 76. _The Modern Army._--The college at Addiscombe was closed in 1860, Ch.84
- 77. In the earliest European settlements in Canada, the necessity of Ch.85
- 78. The _Landsknecht_ infantry constituted the mainstay of the imperial Ch.86
- 79. The Austrians, during the short peace which preceded the war of Ch.87
- 80. The Austrian system has conserved much of the peculiar tone of the Ch.88
- 81. The French army (see for further details FRANCE: _Law and Ch.89
- 82. The artillery had been an industrial concern rather than an arm of Ch.90
- 83. The last half of the 17th century is a brilliant period in the Ch.91
- 84. If Louis was the creator of the royal army, Carnot was so of the Ch.92
- 85. One of the first acts of the Restoration was to abolish the Ch.93
- 86. At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (q.v.) the French field Ch.94
- 87. The German army, strictly speaking, dates only from 1871, or at Ch.95
- 88. The bitter humiliation and suffering endured under the French yoke Ch.96
- 89. The _Saxon Army_ formerly played a prominent part in all the wars of Ch.97
- 90. The _Bavarian Army_ has perhaps the most continuous record of good Ch.98
- 91. _Wurttemberg_ furnishes one army corps (XIII.; headquarters, Ch.99
- 92. The old _Hanoverian Army_ disappeared, of course, with the Ch.100
- 93. The old conscription law of the kingdom of Sardinia is the basis of Ch.101
- 94. The history of the Russian army begins with the abolition of the Ch.102
- 95. The feudal sovereignties of medieval Spain differed but little, in Ch.103
- 96. With the Italian wars of the early 16th century came the Ch.104
- 97. The military history of Spain from 1650 to 1700 is full of Ch.105
- 98. The writers who have left the most complete and trustworthy Ch.106
- 99. The regular army of the United States has always been small. From Ch.107
- 100. _Dutch and Belgian Armies._--The military power of the "United Ch.108
- 101. _Swiss Army._--The inhabitants of Switzerland were always a hardy Ch.109
- 102. The _Swedish Army_ can look back with pride to the days of Ch.110
- 103. The existing Army of _Portugal_ dates from the Peninsular War, Ch.111
- 104. The _Rumanian, Bulgarian_ and _Servian_ armies are the youngest Ch.112
- 1804. Arnault died at Goderville on the 16th of September 1834. Ch.113
- 1848. In 1861 he became a member of the Lower Austrian diet and in 1869 Ch.114
- 1785. After being educated at a convent school in Fritzlar, she lived Ch.115
- 1822. When it is said that he was the son of the famous Dr Arnold of Ch.116
- 1827. In June 1828 he received priest's orders; in April end November of Ch.117
- 4. Spike of fruits. Showing in succession (from below) female flowers, Ch.118
- 3000. It lies in a pleasant undulating country at an elevation of 900 Ch.119
- introduction of European spirits and methods of manufacture is gradually Ch.120
- 500. This was soon transferred to Cambrai, but brought back to its Ch.121
- 1. Warrants are ordinarily granted by justices of the peace on Ch.122
- 2. The officers who may arrest without warrant are,--justices of the Ch.123
- 3. A private person is bound to arrest for a felony committed in his Ch.124
- 4. The arrest by hue and cry is where officers and private persons are Ch.125
- 1826. They are under the direction of maritime prefects, who, by a Ch.126
- 1. Daughter of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, first wife of Ptolemy II. Ch.127
- 2. Daughter of Ptolemy I. Soter and Berenice. Born about 316 B.C., she Ch.128
- 3. Daughter of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, sister and wife of Ptolemy IV. Ch.129
- 4. Youngest daughter of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, and sister of the famous Ch.130
- 819. The streets of the town were widened and improved in 1869. Ch.131
- 1. Brother of Darius I., and, according to Herodotus, the trusted Ch.132
- 2. Vizier of Xerxes (Ctesias, _Pers_. 20), whom he murdered in 465 B.C. Ch.133
- 3. A satrap of Bactria, who revolted against Artaxerxes I., but was Ch.134
- 4. ARTABANUS I., successor of his nephew Phraates II. about 127 B.C., Ch.135
- 5. ARTABANUS II. c. A.D. 10-40, son of an Arsacid princess (Tac. _Ann_. Ch.136
- 18. 9). In A.D. 35 he tried anew to conquer Armenia, and to establish Ch.137
- 6. ARTABANUS III. reigned a short time in A.D. 80 (on a coin of this Ch.138
- 7. ARTABANUS IV., the last Parthian king, younger son of Vologaeses IV., Ch.139
- 1. ARTAXERXES I., surnamed _Macrocheir, Longimanus_, "Longhand," because Ch.140
- 2. ARTAXERXES II., surnamed _Mnemon_, the eldest son of Darius II., whom Ch.141
- 3. ARTAXERXES III. is the title adopted by Ochus, the son of Artaxerxes Ch.142
- 1876. Since 1905 the Art Collections Fund, a society of private Ch.143
- part ii. of Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_). Ch.144
- 5. Lankester, "Observations and Reflections on the Appendages and Ch.145
- 1622. Of the numerous later editions, the best is that of Achille le Ch.146
- 1. _Early Artillery._--Mechanical appliances for throwing projectiles Ch.147
- 2. _The Beginnings of Field Artillery._--It is clear, from such evidence Ch.148
- 3. _The 16th Century._--In the Italian wars waged by Charles VIII., Ch.149
- 4. _The Thirty Years' War._--Such, in its broadest outlines, is the Ch.150
- 5. _Personnel and Classification._--More than 300 years after the first Ch.151
- 6. _The English Civil War._--Even in the English Civil War (Great Ch.152
- 7. _Artillery Progress, 1660-1740._--Cromwell's practice of relegating Ch.153
- 8. _Artillery in the Wars of Frederick the Great._--By the time of Ch.154
- 9. _Gribeauval's Reforms._--At the commencement of the 18th century, Ch.155
- 10. _British Artillery, 1793-1815._--Meanwhile the numbers of the Ch.156
- 11. _French Revolutionary Wars._--During the long wars of the French Ch.157
- 12. _Napoleon's Artillery Tactics._--During the war the French artillery Ch.158
- 13. _Artillery, 1815-1865._--Henceforward, therefore, the history of Ch.159
- 14. _The Franco-German War, 1870-71._--In the next great war, that of Ch.160
- 15. _Results of the War._--The tactical lessons of the war, so far as Ch.161
- 16. _Quick-firing Field Guns._--In 1891, a work by General Wille of the Ch.162
- 17. _Time Shrapnel._--The power of modern artillery owes even more to Ch.163
- 18. _Heavy Field, Siege and Garrison Artillery._--Amongst other results Ch.164
- 19. _Field Artillery Organization._--A _battery_ of field artillery Ch.165
- introduction of the quick-firing gun, the tendency towards small Ch.166
- 20. _Ammunition._--The vehicles of a battery include (besides guns and Ch.167
- 21. _Interior Economy._--The organization and interior economy of a Ch.168
- 22. _Special Natures of Field Artillery._--_Horse Artillery_ differs Ch.169
- 23. _Heavy Ordnance._--_Heavy Field Artillery_, officially defined as Ch.170
- 24. _Higher Organization of Artillery._--The higher units, in almost Ch.171
- 25. _Grouping of the Artillery._--The "corps artillery" (formerly the Ch.172
- 26. _General Characteristics of Field Artillery Action._--The duty of Ch.173
- 27. _Occupation of a Position._--This depends primarily upon Ch.174
- introduction of the shield. A great advantage of retired positions is Ch.175
- introduction of the shield. The disadvantage of extra weight and Ch.176
- 28. _Laying._--"Elevation" may be defined as the vertical inclination of Ch.177
- 29. _Ranging_[4] (except on the French system alluded to below) is, Ch.178
- 30. An example of the ordinary method of ranging, adapted from _Field Ch.179
- 31. _Observation of Fire_, on the accuracy of which depends the success Ch.180
- 32. _Fire._--Field Artillery ranges are classed in the British service Ch.181
- 33. _Projectiles Employed._--"Time shrapnel," say the German Field Ch.182
- 34. _Tactics of Field Artillery._--On the march, the position and Ch.183
- 35. Field artillery in _defence_, which would presumably be inferior to Ch.184
- 36. _Marches._--The importance of having the artillery well up at the Ch.185
- 37. _Power and Mobility._--It will have been made clear that every gun Ch.186
- 38. _Concentration and Dispersion._--The use of their artillery made by Ch.187
- 39. _Horse Artillery_ is to be regarded as field artillery of great Ch.188
- 40. _Field Howitzers_ are somewhat less mobile than field guns; they Ch.189
- 41. _Heavy Field Artillery_, alternatively called _Artillery of Ch.190
- 1. As regards the teeth, we have the passage of a simply tubercular, or Ch.191
- 2. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a complete and Ch.192
- 3. Change of form of the odontoid process of the second or axis Ch.193
- 4. Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and gradual Ch.194
- 5. By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with ruminating Ch.195
- 1907. In every direction there has been a tendency to increase prices Ch.196
- 1884. The Artists' Society, formed in 1830, has for its object the Ch.197